References

ACP

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

ACP

1680-7324

Copernicus GmbH

Göttingen, Germany

10.5194/acp-9-7491-2009

Vehicular emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from a tunnel study in Hong Kong

K. F.

¹ ² Lee

S. C.

¹ Ho

W. K.

¹ Blake

D. R.

³ Cheng

¹ Li

Y. S.

¹ Ho

S. S. H.

¹ ² Fung

⁴ Louie

P. K. K.

⁵ Park

⁶

Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Research Center for Environmental Technology and Management, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China

SKLLQG, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710075, China

Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, USA

AtmAA Inc., 23917 Craftsman Road, Calabasas, CA 91302, USA

Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department, 47/F, Revenue Tower, 5 Gloucester Road, Wan Chai, Hong Kong, China

Railroad Environment~Research Department, Korea Railroad Research Institute, Gyeonggi-Do, Korea

07 10 2009

9 19 7491 7504

This is an open-access article ditributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

This article is available from http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/9/7491/2009/acp-9-7491-2009.html

The full text article is available as a PDF file from http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/9/7491/2009/acp-9-7491-2009.pdf

Vehicle emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were determined at the Shing Mun Tunnel, Hong Kong in summer and winter of 2003. One hundred and ten VOCs were quantified in this study. The average concentration of the total measured VOCs at the inlet and outlet of the tunnel were 81 250 pptv and 117 850 pptv, respectively. Among the 110 compounds, ethene, ethyne and toluene were the most abundant species in the tunnel. The total measured VOC emission factors ranged from 67 mg veh−1 km−1 to 148 mg veh−1 km−1, with an average of 115 mg veh−1 km−1. The five most abundant VOCs observed in the tunnel were, in decreasing order, ethene, toluene, n-butane, propane and i-pentane. These five most abundant species contributed over 38% of the total measured VOCs emitted. The high propane and n-butane emissions were found to be associated with liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)-fueled taxis. Fair correlations were observed between marker species (ethene, i-pentane, n-nonane, and benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes – BTEX) with fractions of gasoline-fueled or diesel-fueled vehicles. Moreover, ethene, ethyne, and propene are the key species that were abundant in the tunnel but not in gasoline vapors or LPG. The ozone formation potential from the VOCs in Hong Kong was evaluated by the maximum increment reactivity (MIR). It was found to be 568 mg of ozone per vehicle per kilometer traveled. Among them, ethene, propene and toluene contribute most to the ozone-formation reactivity.

References 1

Borbon, A., Fontaine, H., Veillerot, M., Locoge, N., Galloo, J. C., and Guillermo, R.: An investigation into the traffic-related fraction of isoprene at an urban location, Atmos. Environ., 35, 3749–3760, 2001.

Barletta, B., Meinardi, S., Simpson, I. J., Khwaja, H. A., Blake, D. R., and Rowland, F. S.: Mixing ratios of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere of Karachi, Pakistan, Atmos. Environ., 36, 3429–3443, 2002.

Barletta, B., Meinardi, S., Rowland, F. S., Chan, C. Y., Wang, X. M., Zou, S. C., Chan, L. Y., and Blake, D. R.: Volatile organic compounds in 43 Chinese cities, Atmos. Environ., 39, 5979–5990, 2005.

Carroll, M. A.: Measurements of COS and CS2 in the free troposphere, J. Geophys. Res., 90, 10483–10486, 1985.

Carter, W. P. L.: Development of ozone reactivity scales for volatile organic compounds, JAWMA, 44, 881–899, 1994.

Carter, W. P. L.: VOC reactivity data as of February~5, 2003 (available at: ftp://ftp.cert.ucr.edu/pub/carter/SAPRC99/r02tab.xls, last access: 15~August~2007, 2003.

Chan, L. Y., Chu, K. W., Zou, S. C., Chan, Y. C., Wang, X. M., Barletta, B., Blake, D. R., and Guo, H.: Characteristics of nonmethane hydrocarbons (NMHCs) in industrial, industrial-urban, and industrial-suburban atmospheres of the Pearl River Delta (PRD) region of south China, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D11304, doi:10.1029/2005JD006481, 2006.

Chan, C. Y., Chan, L. Y., Wang, X. M., Liu, Y. M., Lee, S. C., Zou, S. C., Sheng, G. Y., and Fu, J. M.: Volatile organic compounds in roadside microenvironments of metropolitan Hong Kong, Atmos. Environ., 36, 2039–2047, 2002.

Chiang, H.-L., Hwu, C.-S., Chen, S.-Y., Wu, M.-C., Ma, S.-Y., and Huang, Y. S.: Emission factors and characteristics of criteria pollutants and volatile organic compounds VOCs) in a freeway tunnel study, Sci. Total Environ., 381, 200–211, 2007.

Duffy, B. L. and Nelson, P. F.: Non-methane exhaust composition in the Sydney Harbour tunnel: a focus on benzene and 1,3-butadiene, Atmos. Environ., 30, 2759–2768, 1996.

Finlayson-Pitts, B. J. and Pitts Jr, J. N.: Atmospheric Chemistry, Wiley, New York, 1986.

Fried, A., Henry, B., Sams, R.: Measurements of carbonyl sulfide in automotive emissions and an assessment of its importance to the global sulfur cycle, J. Geophys. Res., 92, 14621–14634, 1992.

Gertler, A. W., Fujita, E. M., Pierson, W. R., and Wittorf, D. N.: Appointment of NMHC tailpipe vs non-tailpipe emissions in the Fort McHenry and Tuscarora Mountain Tunnels, Atmos. Environ., 30, 2297–2305, 1996.

Guo, H., So, K. L., Simpson, I. J., Barletta, B., Meinardi, S., and Blake, D. R.: C$_1$–C$_8$ volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere of Hong Kong: Overview of atmospheric processing and source apportionment, Atmos. Environ., 41, 1456–1472, 2007.

Guo, H., Wang, T., Simpson, I. J., Blake, D. R., Kwok, Y. H., and Li, Y. S.: Regional and local source contributions to ambient NMHCs of a polluted rural/coastal site in Pearl River Delta, China, Atmos. Environ., 40, 2345–2359, 2006.

Guo, H., Lee, S. C., Louie, P. K. K., and Ho, K. F.: Characterization of hydrocarbons, halocarbons and carbonyls in the atmosphere of Hong Kong, Chemosphere, 57, 1363–1372, 2004.

Haszpra, L. and Szilagyi, I.: Non-methane hydrocarbon composition of car exhaust in Hungary, Atmos. Environ., 28, 2609–2614, 1994.

Heeb, N. V., Forss, A.-M., and Bach, C.: Fast and quantitative measurement of benzene, toluene and C2-benzenes in automotive exhaust during transient engine operation with and without catalytic exhaust gas treatment, Atmos. Environ., 33, 205–215, 1999.

Heeb, N. V., Forss, A.-M., Bach, C., and Mattrel, P.: Velocity-dependent emission factors of benzene, toluene and C2-benzenes of a passenger car equipped with and without a regulated 3-way catalyst, Atmos. Environ., 34, 1123–1137, 2000.

Ho, K. F., Lee, S. C., Guo, H., and Tsai, W. Y.: Seasonal and diurnal variations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere of Hong Kong, Sci. Total Environ., 322, 155–166, 2004.

Ho, K. F. and Lee, S. C.: Identification of atmospheric volatile organic compounds (VOCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and carbonyl compounds in Hong Kong, Sci. Total Environ., 289, 145–158, 2002.

Hsu, Y. C., Tsai, J. H., Chen, H. W., and Lin, W. Y.: Tunnel study of on-road vehicle emissions and the photochemical potential in Taiwan, Chemosphere, 42, 227–234, 2001.

Hwa, M.-Y., Hsieh, C.-C., Wu, T.-C., and Chang, L. F. W.: Real-world vehicle emissions and VOCs profile in the Taipei tunnel located at Taiwan Taipei area, Atmos. Environ., 36, 1993–2002, 2002.

Kaiser, E. W., Siegl, W. O., Cotton, D. F., and Anderson, R. W.: Effect of fuel structure on emissions from a spark-ignited engine, 2, Naphthene and aromatic fuels, Environ. Sci. Technol., 26, 1581–1586, 2002.

Kirchstetter, T. W., Singer, B. C., Harley, R. A., Kendall, G. R., and Chan, W.: Impact of oxygenated gasoline use on California light-duty vehicle emissions, Environ. Sci. Technol., 30, 661–670, 1996.

Lee, S. C., Chiu, M. Y., Ho, K. F., Zou, S. C., and Wang, X. M.: Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in urban atmosphere of Hong Kong, Chemosphere, 48, 375–382, 2002.

Lee, S. C., Ho, K. F., Chan, L. Y., Zielinska, B., and Chow, J. C.: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and carbonyl compounds in urban atmosphere of Hong Kong, Atmos. Environ., 35, 5949–5960, 2001.

Liu, Y., Shao, M., Fu, L. L., Lu, S. H., Zeng, L. M., and Tang, D. G.: Source profiles of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) measured in China: Part~I, Atmos. Environ., 42, 6247–6260, 2008.

Lonneman, W. A., Sella, R. L., and Meeks, S. A.: Non-methane organic composition in the Lincoln tunnel, Environ. Sci. Technol., 20, 790–796, 1986.

Monod, A., Sive, B. C., Avino, P., Chen, T., Blake, D. R., and Rowland, F. S.: Volatile organic compounds in some urban locations in United States, Chemosphere, 47, 863–882, 2002.

Mu, Y., Wu, H., Zhang, X., and Jiang, G.: Impact of anthropogenic sources on carbonyl sulfide in Beijing City, J. Geophys. Res., 107(D24), 4769, doi:10.1029/2002JD002245, 2002.

Mugica, V., Vega, E., Arriaga, J. L., and Ruiz, M. E.: Determination of motor vehicle profiles for non-methane organic compounds in the Mexico city metropolitan area, JAWMA, 48, 1060–1068, 1998.

Na, K., Kim, Y. P., and Moon, K. C.: Seasonal variation of the C2–C$_9$ hydrocarbon concentrations and compositions emitted from motor vehicles in a Seoul tunnel, Atmos. Environ., 36, 1969–1978, 2002.

Nelson, P. F. and Quigley, S. M.: The m, p-xylenes: ethylbenzene ratio, a technique for estimating hydrocarbon age in ambient atmospheres, Atmos. Environ., 17, 659–662, 1983.

Ning, Z., Polidori, A., Schauer, J. J., James, J., Sioutas, C.: Emission factors of PM species based on freeway measurements and comparison with tunnel and dynamometer studies, Atmos. Environ., 42, 3099–3114, 2008.

Pierson W. R. and Brachaczek W. W.: Particulate matter associated with vehicles on the road, Environ. Sci. Technol., 17, 757–760, 1983.

Pierson, W. R., Gertler, A. W., and Bradow, R. L.: Comparison of the SCAQS tunnel study with other on-road vehicle emission data, JAWMA, 40, 1495–1504, 1990.

Pierson, W. R., Gertler, A. W., Robinson, N. F., Sagebiel, J. C., Zielinska, B., Bishop, G. A., Stedman, D. H., Zweidinger, R. B., and Ray, W. D.: Real-world automotive emissions – Summary of studies in the Fort McHenry and Tuscarora Mountain Tunnels, Atmos. Environ., 30, 2233–2256, 1996.

Rogak, S. N, Pott, U., Dann, T., and Wang, D.: Gaseous emissions from vehicles in a traffic tunnel in Vancouver, British Columbia, JAWMA, 48, 604–615, 1998.

Schauer, J. J., Kleeman, M. J., Cass, G. R., and Simoneit, B. R. T.: Measurement of emissions from air pollution sources, 2, C$_1$ through C$_30$ organic compounds from medium duty diesel trucks, Environ. Sci. Technol., 33, 1578–1587, 1999.

Smyth, S., Sandholm, S., Shumaker, B., Mitch, W., Kanvinde, A., Bradshaw, J., Liu, S., McKeen, S., Gregory, G., Anderson, B., Talbot, R., Blake, D., Rowland, S., Browell, E., Fenn, M., Merrill, J., Bachmeier, S., Sachse, G., and Collins, J.: Characterization of the chemical signatures of air masses observed during the PEM experiments over the western Pacific, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 16243–16254, 1999.

So, K. L. and Wang, T.: C3–C$_12$ non-methane hydrocarbons in subtropical Hong Kong: spatial-temporal variations, source-receptor relationships and photochemical reactivity, Sci. Total Environ., 328, 161–174, 2004.

Staehelin, J., Keller, C., Stahel, W., Schlapfer, K., and Wunderli, S.: Emission factors from road traffic from a tunnel study (Gubrist tunnel, Switzerland) Part~III: results of organic compounds, SO2 and speciation of organic exhaust emission, Atmos. Environ., 32, 999–1009, 1998.

Stemmler, K., Bugmann, S., Buchmann, B., Reimann, S., and Staehelin, J.: Large decrease of VOC emissions of Switzerland's car fleet during the past decade: results from a highway tunnel study, Atmos. Environ., 39, 1009–1018, 2005.

Stoeckenius, T. E., Ligocki, M. P., Shepard, S. B., and Iwamiya, R. K.: Analysis of PAMS data: application to summer 1993 Houston and Baton Rouge data, Draft report prepared by Systems Applications International, San Rafael, CA, SYSAPP~94-95/115d, November, in: USEPA report: Receptor Modeling, 2006.

Thijsse, T. R., van Oss, R. F., and Lenschow, P.: Determination of source contributions to ambient volatile organic compound concentrations in Berlin, JAWMA, 49, 1394–1404, 1999.

Transport Department: Annual Transport Digest 2004, The Transport Department of Hong Kong SAR, 2004.

Tsai, J.-H., Chiang, H.-L., Hsu, Y.-C., Weng, H.-C., and Yang, C.-Y.: The speciation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from motorcycle engine exhaust at different driving modes, Atmos. Environ., 37, 2485–2496, 2003.

Tsai, W. Y., Chan, L. Y., Blake, D. R., and Chu, K. W.: Vehicular fuel composition and atmospheric emissions in South China: Hong Kong, Macau, Guangzhou, and Zhuhai, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 3281–3288, 2006.

Tsai, W. Y.: Non-methane hydrocarbon characteristics of motor vehicular emissions in the Pearl River Delta region, PhD thesis, 2007.

Turrio-Baldassarri, L., Battistelli, C. L., Chiara, L., Conti, L., Crebelli, R., De Berardis, B., Iamiceli, A. L., Gambino, M., and Iannaccone, S.: Emission comparison of urban bus engine fueled with diesel oil and "biodiesel" blend, Sci. Total Environ., 327, 147–162, 2004.

Vega, E., Mugica, V., Carmona, R., and Valencia, E.: Hydrocarbon source apportionment in Mexico city using the chemical mass balance receptor model, Atmos. Environ., 34, 4121–4129, 2000.