References

ACP

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

ACP

1680-7324

Copernicus GmbH

Göttingen, Germany

10.5194/acp-9-3113-2009

The impact of traffic emissions on atmospheric ozone and OH: results from QUANTIFY

Hoor

¹ Borken-Kleefeld

² Caro

³ Dessens

⁴ Endresen

⁵ Gauss

⁶ Grewe

⁷ Hauglustaine

³ Isaksen

I. S. A.

⁶ Jöckel

¹ Lelieveld

¹ Myhre

⁶ ⁸ Meijer

⁹ Olivie

¹⁰ Prather

¹¹ Schnadt Poberaj

¹² Shine

K. P.

¹³ Staehelin

¹² Tang

¹¹ van Aardenne

¹⁴ van Velthoven

⁹ Sausen

⁷

Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Dept. of Atmospheric Chemistry, 55020 Mainz, Germany

Transportation Studies, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Berlin, Germany

Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environment (LSCE), CEN de Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France

Centre for Atmospheric Science, Dept. of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK

DNV, Det Norske Veritas (DNV), Oslo, Norway

Dept. of Geosciences, University of Oslo, Norway

Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt, Inst. für Physik der Atmosphäre, Oberpaffenhofen, 82234 Wessling, Germany

Center for International Climate and Environmental Research-Oslo (CICERO), Oslo, Norway

Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute, KNMI, De Bilt, The Netherlands

Meteo France, CNRS, Toulouse, France

Department of Earth System Science, University of California, Irvine, USA

Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich, Switzerland

Department of Meteorology, University of Reading, UK

Joint Research Center, JRC, Ispra, Italy

14 05 2009

9 9 3113 3136

This is an open-access article ditributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

This article is available from http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/9/3113/2009/acp-9-3113-2009.html

The full text article is available as a PDF file from http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/9/3113/2009/acp-9-3113-2009.pdf

To estimate the impact of emissions by road, aircraft and ship traffic on ozone and OH in the present-day atmosphere six different atmospheric chemistry models have been used. Based on newly developed global emission inventories for road, ship and aircraft emission data sets each model performed sensitivity simulations reducing the emissions of each transport sector by 5%. The model results indicate that on global annual average lower tropospheric ozone responds most sensitive to ship emissions (50.6%±10.9% of the total traffic induced perturbation), followed by road (36.7%±9.3%) and aircraft exhausts (12.7%±2.9%), respectively. In the northern upper troposphere between 200–300 hPa at 30–60° N the maximum impact from road and ship are 93% and 73% of the maximum effect of aircraft, respectively. The latter is 0.185 ppbv for ozone (for the 5% case) or 3.69 ppbv when scaling to 100%. On the global average the impact of road even dominates in the UTLS-region. The sensitivity of ozone formation per NOx molecule emitted is highest for aircraft exhausts. The local maximum effect of the summed traffic emissions on the ozone column predicted by the models is 0.2 DU and occurs over the northern subtropical Atlantic extending to central Europe. Below 800 hPa both ozone and OH respond most sensitively to ship emissions in the marine lower troposphere over the Atlantic. Based on the 5% perturbation the effect on ozone can exceed 0.6% close to the marine surface (global zonal mean) which is 80% of the total traffic induced ozone perturbation. In the southern hemisphere ship emissions contribute relatively strongly to the total ozone perturbation by 60%–80% throughout the year. Methane lifetime changes against OH are affected strongest by ship emissions up to 0.21 (± 0.05)%, followed by road (0.08 (±0.01)%) and air traffic (0.05 (± 0.02)%). Based on the full scale ozone and methane perturbations positive radiative forcings were calculated for road emissions (7.3±6.2 mWm−2) and for aviation (2.9±2.3 mWm−2). Ship induced methane lifetime changes dominate over the ozone forcing and therefore lead to a net negative forcing (−25.5±13.2 mWm−2).

References 1

Andreae, M. and Merlet, P.: Emission of trace gases and aerosols from biomass burning, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 15, 955–966, 2001.

Berntsen, T., Fuglestvedt, J., Joshi, M., Shine, K., Stuber, N., Ponater, M., Sausen, R., Hauglustaine, D., and Li, L.: Climate response to regional emissions of ozone precursors: sensitivities and warming potentials, Tellus B, 57B, 283–304, 2005.

Bian, H. and Prather, M.: Fast-J2: Accurate Simulation of stratospheric photolysis in global chemical models, J. Atmos. Sci., 41, 281–296, 2002.

Borken, J. and Steller, H.: Report on the Draft Emission Inventories for Road Transport in the year 2000, Tech. rep., Deutsches Institut für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR), Institut für Verkehrsforschung, 2006.

Borken, J., Steller, H., Meretei, T., and Vanhove, F.: Global and country inventory of road passenger and freight transportation – Their fuel consumption and their emissions of air pollutants in the year 2000, Transport. Res. Rec., 2011, doi:10.3141/2011-14, 2007.

Brasseur, G P., Müller, J., and Garnier, C.: Atmospheric impact of NOx emissions by subsonic aircraft: A three-dimensional model study, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 1423–1428, 1996.

Cariolle, D., Evans, M., Chipperfield, M., Butkovskaya, N., Kukui, A., and LeBras, G.: Impact of the new HNO3-forming channel of the HO2+OH reaction on tropospheric HNO3, NOx, HOx, and ozone, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 4061–4068, 2008.

Carver, G. and Scott, P.: IMPACT: an implicit time integration scheme for chemical species and families, Ann. Geophys., 18, 337–346, 2000.

Carver, G., Brown, P., and Wild, O.: The ASAD atmospheric chemistry integration package and chemical reaction database, Comput. Phys. Commun., 105, 197–215, 1997.

Corbett, J. and Koehler, H.: Updated emissions from ocean shipping, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4650, doi:10.1029/2003JD003751, 2003.

Dalsoren, S. and Isaksen, I.: CTM study of changes in tropospheric hydroxyl distribution 1990–2001 and its impact on methane, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L23811, doi:10.1029/2006GL027295, 2006.

Dameris, M., Grewe, V., Ponater, M., Deckert, R., Eyring, V., Mager, F., Matthes, S., Schnadt, C., Stenke, A., Steil, B., Brühl, C., and Giorgetta, M.: Long-term changes and variability in a transient simulation with a chemistry-climate model employing realistic forcing, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 2121–2145, 2005.

Endresen, O., Sorgand, E., Sundet, J., Dalsoren, S., Isaksen, I., Berglen, T., and Gravir, G.: Emission from international sea transportation and environmental impact, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4560, doi:10.1029/2002JD002898, 2003.

Endresen, O., Sorgard, E., Behrens, H., Brett, P., and Isaksen, I.: A historical reconstruction of ships' fuel consumption and emissions, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D12301, doi:10.1029/2006JD007630, 2007.

Eyers, C., Norman, P., Middel, J., Plohr, M., Michot, S., Atkinson, K., and Christou, R.: AERO2K Global Aviation Emissions Inventories for 2002 and 2025, Tech. Rep. 04/01113, QinetiQ, http://elib.dlr.de/1328, 2004.

Eyring, V., Köhler, H., J., v., and Lauer, A.: Emissions from international shipping: 1. The last 50 years, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D17305, doi:10.1029/2004JD005619, 2005.

Eyring, V., Stevenson, D., Lauer, A., Dentener, F., Butler, T., Collins, W., Ellingsen, K., Gauss, M., Hauglustaine, D., Isaksen, I., Lawrence, M., Richter, A., Rodriguez, J., Sanderson, M., Strahan, S., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., van Noije, T., and Wild, O.: Multi-model simulations of the impact of international shipping on atmospheric chemistry and climate in 2000 and 2030, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 757-780, 2007.

Folberth, G., Hauglustaine, D., Ciais, P., and Lathière, J.: On the role of atmospheric chemistry in the global CO2 budget, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L08801, doi:10.1029/2004GL021812, 2005.

Fuglestvedt, J., Berntsen, T., Isaksen, I., Mao, H., Liang, X., and Wang, W.: Climatic forcing of nitrogen oxides through changes in tropospheric ozone and methane: global 3D model studies, Atmos. Environ., 33, 961–977, 1999.

Fuglestvedt, J., Berntsen, T., Myhre, G., Rypdal, K., and Skeie, R.: Climatic forcing from the transport sectors, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 105, 454–458, 2008.

Ganzeveld, L., van Aardenne, J., Butler, T., Lawrence, M., Metzger, S., Stier, P., Zimmermann, P., and Lelieveld, J.: Technical Note: Anthropogenic and natural offline emissions and the online EMissions and dry DEPosition submodel EMDEP of the Modular Earth Submodel system (MESSy), Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 6, 5457–5483, 2006.

Gauss, M., Isaksen, I., Wong, S., and Wang, W.-C.: Impact of H2O emissions from cryoplanes and kerosene aircraft on the atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4304, doi:10.1029/2002JD002623, 2003.

Gauss, M., Isaksen, I., Lee, D., and Sovde, O.: Impact of aircraft NOx emissions on the atmosphere – tradeoffs to reduce impact, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 1529–1548, 2006.

Giannakopoulos, C., Chipperfield, M., Law, K., and Pyle, J.: Validation and intercomparison of wet and dry deposition schemes using 210Pb in a global three-dimensional off-line chemical transport model, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 23 761–23 784, 1999.

Granier, C. and Brasseur, G.: The impact of road traffic on global tropospheric ozone, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1086, doi:10.1029/2002GL015972, 2003.

Granier, C., Niemeier, U., Jungclaus, J., Emmons, L., Hess, P., Lamarque, J.-F., Walters, S., and Brasseur, G.: Ozone pollution from future ship traffic in the Arctic northern passages, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L13807, doi:10.1029/2006GL026180, 2006.

Grewe, V.: Technical note: A diagnostic for ozone contributions of various NOx emissions in multi-decadal chemistry-climate model simulations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 327–342, 2004.

Grewe, V.: Impact of climate variability on tropospheric ozone, Sci. Tot. Env., 374, 167–181, 2007.

Grewe, V., Brunner, D., Dameris, M., Grenfell, J., Hein, R., Shindell, D., and Staehelin, J.: Origin and variability of upper tropospheric nitrogen oxides and ozone at northern mid-latitudes, Atmos. Environ., 35, 3421–3433, 2001.

Grewe, V., Dameris, M., Fichter, C., and Sausen, R.: Impact of aircraft NOx emissions. Part I: Interactively coupled climate-chemistry simulations and sensitivities to climate-chemistry feedback, lightning and model resolution, Meteorol. Z., 11, 177–186, 2002.

Grewe, V., Stenke, A., Ponater, M., Sausen, R., Pitari, G., Iachetti, D., Rogers, H., Dessens, O., Pyle, J., Isaksen, I., Gulstad, L., Sovde, O., Marizy, C., and Pascuillo, E.: Climate impact of supersonic air traffic: an approach to optimize a potential future supersonic fleet - results from the EU-project SCENIC, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 5129–5145, 2007.

Hauglustaine, D., Hourdin, F., Walters, S., Jourdain, J., Filiberti, M.-A., Lamarque, J.-F., and Holland, E.: Interactive chemistry in the Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique general circulation model: Description and background tropospheric chemistry evaluation, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D04314, doi:10.1029/2003JD003957, 2004.

Hedegaard, G., Brandt, J., Christensen, J H., Frohn, L. M., and~Geels, C., Hansen, K M., and Stendel, M.: Impacts of climate change on air pollution levels in the Northern Hemisphere with special focus on Europe and the Arctic, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 3337–3367, 2008.

Hidalgo, H. and Crutzen, P.: The tropospheric and stratospheric composition perturbed by NOx emissions of high-altitude aircraft, J. Geophys. Res., 82, 5833–5866, 1977.

Holtslag, A. A M. and Boville, B.: Local vesus nonlocal boundary-layer diffusion in a global climate model, J. Climate, 6, 1825–1842, 1993.

Houweling, S., Dentener, F., and Lelieveld, J.: The impact of nonmethane hydrocarbon compounds on tropospheric photochemistry, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 10 673–10 696, 1998.

Hsu, J., Prather, M., and Wild, O.: Diagnosing the stratosphere-to-troposphere flux of ozone in a chemistry transport model, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D19305, doi:10.1029/2005JD006045, 2005.

Hsu, J. e a.: Are the TRACE-P measurements representative of the western Pacific during March 2001?, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D02314, doi:10.1029/2003JD004002, 2004.

IPCC: Climate Change 2001: The scientific basis, Cambridge, UK, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001.

Isaksen, I., Zerefos, C., Kourtidis, K., Meleti, C., Dalsoren, S., Sundet, J., Grini, A., Zanis, P., and Balis, D.: Tropospheric ozone changes at unpolluted and semipolluted regions induced by stratospheric ozone changes, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D02302, doi:10.1029/2004JD004618, 2005.

Jöckel, P., Tost, H., Pozzer, A., Brühl, C., Bucholz, J., Ganzeveld, L., Hoor, P., Kerkweg, A., Lawrence, M., Sander, R., Steil, B., Stiller, G., Tanharte, M., Taraborrelli, D., van Aardenne, J., and Lelieveld, J.: Evaluation of the atmospheric chemistry GCM ECHAM5/MESSy: Consistent simulation of ozone in the stratosphere and troposphere, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 5067–5104, 2006.

Kahn Ribeiro, S., Kobayashi, S., Beuthe, M., Gasca, J., Greene, D., Lee, D., Muromachi, Y., Newton, P., Plotkin, S., Sperling, D., Wit, R., and Zhou, P.: Transport and its infrastructure, in: Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC, edited by Metz, B., Davidson, O., Bosch, P., Dave, R., and Meyer, L., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2007.

Kentarchos, A. and Roelofs, G.: Impact of aircraft NOx emissions on tropospheric ozone calculated with a chemistry-general circulation model: Sensitivity to higher hydrocarbon chemistry, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4175, doi:10.1029/2001JD0000828, 2002.

Kerkweg, A and, S R., Tost, H., and Jöckel, P.: Technical note: Implementation of prescribed (OFFLEM), calculated (ONLEM), and pseudo-emissions (TNUDGE) of chemical species in the Modular Earth Submodel System (MESSy), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 3603–3609, 2006.

Law, K. and Nisbet, E.: Sensitivity of the methane growth rate to changes in methane emissions from natural gas and coal, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 14 387–14 397, 1996.

Law, K., Plantevin, P., Shallcross, D., Rogers, H., Pyle, J., Grouhel, C., Thouret, V., and Marenco, A.: Evaluation of modelled O3 using MOZAIC data, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 25 721–25 737, 1998.

Law, K., Plantevin, P., Thouret, V., Marenco, A., Asman, W., Lawrence, M., Crutzen, P., Muler, J., Hauglustaine, D., and Kanakidou, M.: Comparison between global chemistry transport model results and Measurement of Ozone and Water Vapor by Airbus In-Service Aircraft (MOZAIC) data, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 1503–1525, 2000.

Lawrence, M G. and Crutzen, P J.: Influence of NOx emission from ships on tropospheric photochemistry and climate, Nature, 402, 167–170, 1999.

Lelieveld, J., Peters, W., Dentener, F., and Krol, M.: Stability of tropospheric hydroxyl chemistry, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4715, doi:10.1029/2002JD002272, 2002.

Lelieveld, J., Dentener, F., Peters, W., and Krol, M.: On the role of hydroxyl radicals in the self-cleansing capacity of the troposphere, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 2337–2344, 2004.

Lemke, P., Ren, J., Alley, R., Allison, I., Carrasco, J., Flato, G., Fujii, Y., Kaser, G., Mote, P., Thomas, R., and T., Z.: Observations: Changes in Snow, Ice and Frozen Ground, in: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC, edited by: Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K., Tignor, M., and Miller, H., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2007.

Matthes, S., Grewe, V., Sausen, R., and Roelofs, G.: Global impact of road traffic emissions on tropospheric ozone, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 1707–1718, 2007.

Meijer, E., van Velthoven, P., Brunner, D., Huntrieser, H., and Kelder, H.: Improvement and evaluation for the parametrisation of nitrogen oxide production by lightning, Phys. Chem. Earth, 26(8), 557–583, 2001.

Meilinger, S., Kärcher, B., von Kuhlmann, R., and Peter, T.: On the impact of heterogenous chemistry on ozone in the tropopause region, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 515–518, 2001.

Meilinger, S., Kärcher, B., and Peter, T.: Microphysics and heterogeneous chemistry in aircraft plumes – high sensitivity on local meteorology and atmospheric composition, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 533–545, 2005.

Myhre, G., Karlsdottir, S., Isaksen, I., and Stordal, F.: Radiative forcing due to changes in tropospheric ozone in the period 1980 to 1996, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 28 935–28 942, 2000.

Niemeier, U., Granier, C., Kornblueh, L., Walters, S., and Brasseur, G.: Global impact of road traffic on atmospheric chemical composition and on ozone climate forcing, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D09301, doi:10.1029/2006JD006407, 2006.

O'Connor, F., Carver, G., Savage, N., Pyle, J., Methven, J., Arnold, S., Dewey, K., and Kent, J.: Comparison and visualisation of high-resolution transport modelling with aircraft measurements, Atmos. Sci. Lett., 6, 164–170, doi:10.1002/asl.111, 2005.

Ohara, T., Akimoto, H., Kurokawa, J., Horii, N., Yamaji, K., Yan, X., and Hayasaka, T.: An Asian emission inventory of anthropogenic emission sources for the period 1980–2020, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 4419–4444, 2007.

Olivier, J., van Aardenne, J., Dentener, F., Ganzeveld, L., and Peters, J.: Recent trends in global greenhouse gas emissions: regional trends and spatial distribution of key sources, in: Non-CO2 Greenhouse Gases (NCGG-4), Millpress, Rotterdam, 325–330, 2005.

Pickering, K E., Wang, Y., Tao, W., Price, C., and Muller, J.-F.: Vertical distribution of lightning NOx for use in regional and global chemical transport models, J. Geophys. Res., 109, 31 203–31 216, 1998.

Prather, M.: Numerical advection by conservation of second-order moments, J. Geophys. Res., 91, 6671–6681, 1986.

Price, C. and Rind, D.: A simple lightning parameterization for calculating global lightning distributions, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 9919–9933, 1992.

Rogers, H., Teyssedre, H., Pitari, G., Grewe, V., van Velthoven, P., and Sundet, J.: Model intercomparison of the transport of aircraft-like emissions from sub- and supersonic aircraft, Meteorol. Z., 151–159, 2002.

Sausen, R., Isaksen, I., Grewe, V., Schumann, U., Hauglustaine, D., Lee, D., Myhre, G., Köhler, M., Pitari, G., Strordal, F., and Zerefos, C.: Aviation radiative forcing in 2000: An update on IPCC(1999), Meteorol. Z., 555–561, 2005.

Savage, N., Law, K., Pyle, J., Richter, A., Nüss, H., and Burrows, J.: Using GOME NO2 satellite data to examine regional differences in TOMCAT model performance, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 1895–1912, 2004.

Schumann, U.: The impact of nitrogen oxides emissions from aircraft upon the atmosphere at flight altitudes - results from the AERONOX project, Atmos. Environ., 31, 1723–1733, 1997.

Schumann, U. (Ed.): Air pollution research report 68, Pollution from aircraft emissions in the North Atlantic flight corridor (POLINAT 2), European Commission, L-2985 Luxembourg, ISBN 92-828-6197-X, 1998.

Schumann, U. and Huntrieser, H.: The global lightning-induced nitrogen oxides source, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 3823–3907, 2007.

Schumann, U., Schlager, H., Arnold, F., Ovarlez, J., Kelder, H., Hov, O., Hayman, G., Isaksen, I., Staehelin, J., and Whitefield, P.: Pollution from aircraft emissions in the North Atlantic flight corridor: Overview on the POLINAT projects, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 3605–3632, doi:10.1029/1999JD900941, 2000.

Sovde, O A., Gauss, M., Isaksen, I. S A., Pitari, G., and Marizy, C.: Aircraft pollution – a futuristic view, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 3621–3632, 2007.

Stevenson, D., Dentener, F., Schultz, M., Ellingsen, K., van Noije, T., Wild, O., Zeng, G., Amann, M., Atherton, C., Bell, N., Bergmann, D., Bey, I., Butler, T., Cofala, J., Collins, W., Derwent, R., Doherty, R., Drevet, J., Eskes, H., Fiore, A., Gauss, M., Hauglustaine, D., Horowitz, L., Isaksen, I., Krol, M., Lamarque, J.-F., Lawrence, M., Montanaro, V., Müller, J.-F., Pitari, G., Prather, M., Pyle, J., Rast, S., Rodriguez, J., Sanderson, M., Savage, N., Shindell, D., Strahan, S., Sudo, K., and Szopa, S.: Multimodel ensemble simulations of present-day and near-future tropospheric ozone, 111, D08301, doi:10.1029/2005JD006338, 2006.

Tiedtke, M.: A Comprehensive Mass Flux Scheme for Cumulus Parameterisation on Large Scale Models, Mon. Weather Rev., 117, 1779–1800, 1989.

Tost, H., Jöckel, P., Kerkweg, A., Sander, R., and Lelieveld, J.: Technical Note: A new comprehensive SCAVenging submodel for global atmospheric chemistry modelling, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 565–574, 2006.

Tost, H., Jöckel, P., and Lelieveld, J.: Lightning and convection parameterisations - uncertainties in global modelling, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 4553–4568, 2007.

van Aardenne, J., Dentener, F., Olivier, J., Peters, J., and Ganzeveld, L.: The EDGAR3.2 Fast Track 2000 data set (32FT2000), www.mnp.nl/edgar/model/v32ft2000edgar/docv32ft2000, Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability (JRC-IES), Climate Change Unit, TP280, 21020 Ispra, Italy, 2005.

van Noije, T., Eskes, H., Dentener, F., Stevenson, D., Ellingsen, K., Schultz, M., and Wild, O.: Multi-model ensemble simulations of tropospheric NO2 compared with GOME retrievals for the year 2000, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 2943–2979, 2006a.

van Noije, T., Segers, A., and van Velthoven, P.: Time series of the stratosphere-troposphere exchange of ozone simulated with reanalyzed and operational forecast data, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D03301, doi:10.1029/2005JD006081, 2006b.

von Kuhlmann, R., Lawrence, M G., Crutzen, P., and Rasch, P.: A model for studies of tropospheric ozone and nonmethane hydrocarbons: Model description and ozone results, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4294, doi:10.1029/2002JD002893, 2003a.

von Kuhlmann, R., Lawrence, M G., Crutzen, P., and Rasch, P.: A model for studies of tropospheric ozone and nonmethane hydrocarbons: Model evaluation of ozone related species, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4729, doi:10.1029/2002JD003348, 2003b.

Wild, O., Sundet, J., Prather, M., Isaksen, I., Akimoto, H., Browell, E., and Oltmans, S.: Chemical transport model ozone simulations for spring 2001 over the western Pacific: Comparisons with TRACE-P lidar, ozonesondes, and Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer columns, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D21), 8826, doi:10.1029/2002JD003283, 2003.