References

ACP

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

ACP

1680-7324

Copernicus GmbH

Göttingen, Germany

10.5194/acp-8-1277-2008

Real-time characterization of particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient aerosols and from motor-vehicle exhaust

Polidori

¹ Hu

¹ Biswas

¹ Delfino

R. J.

² Sioutas

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Southern California, 3620 South Vermont Ave., Los Angeles, CA, 90089, USA

Epidemiology Division, Department of Medicine, University of California Irvine, 100 Theory Dr., Suite 100, Irvine, CA 92617, USA

04 03 2008

8 5 1277 1291

This is an open-access article ditributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

This article is available from http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/8/1277/2008/acp-8-1277-2008.html

The full text article is available as a PDF file from http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/8/1277/2008/acp-8-1277-2008.pdf

A photo-electric aerosol sensor, a diffusion charger, an Aethalometer, and a continuous particle counter were used along with other real-time instruments to characterize the particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (p-PAH) content, and the physical/chemical characteristics of aerosols collected a) in Wilmington (CA) near the Los Angeles port and close to 2 major freeways, and b) at a dynamometer testing facility in downtown Los Angeles (CA), where 3 diesel trucks were tested. In Wilmington, the p-PAH, surface area, particle number, and "black" carbon concentrations were 4-8 times higher at 09:00–11:00 a.m. than between 17:00 and 18:00 p.m., suggesting that during rush hour traffic people living in that area are exposed to a higher number of diesel combustion particles enriched in p-PAH coatings. Dynamometer tests revealed that the p-PAH emissions from the "baseline" truck (no catalytic converter) were up to 200 times higher than those from the 2 vehicles equipped with advanced emission control technologies, and increased when the truck was accelerating. In Wilmington, integrated filter samples were collected and analyzed to determine the concentrations of the most abundant p-PAHs. A correlation between the total p-PAH concentration (μg/m3) and the measured photo-electric aerosol sensor signal (fA) was also established. Estimated ambient p-PAH concentrations (Average=0.64 ng/m3; Standard deviation=0.46 ng/m3 were in good agreement with those reported in previous studies conducted in Los Angeles during a similar time period. Finally, we calculated the approximate theoretical lifetime (70 years per 24-h/day) lung-cancer risk in the Wilmington area due to inhalation of multi-component p-PAHs and "black" carbon. Our results indicate that the lung-cancer risk is highest during rush hour traffic and lowest in the afternoon, and that the genotoxic risk of the considered p-PAHs does not seem to contribute to a significant part of the total lung-cancer risk attributable to "black" carbon.

References 1

Ayala, A., Kado, N. Y., Okamoto, R. A., Holmen, B. A., Kuzmicky, P. A., Kobayashi, R., Stiglitz, K. E. Diesel and CNG Heavy-duty Transit Bus: Emissions over Multiple Driving Schedules: Regulated Pollutants and Project Overview, Journal of Lubricants and Fuels, SAE Transactions, 111, 735–747, 2002.

Baltensperger, U., Streit, N., Weingartner, E., Nyeki, S., Prevot, A. S. H., Van Dingenen, R., Virkkula, A., Putaud, J. P., Even, A., et al.: Urban and rural aerosol characterization of summer smog events during the PIPAPO field campaign in Milan, Italy, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 107(D22), 8193, doi:10.1029/2001JD001292, 2002.

Bostrom, C.-E., Gerde, P., Hanberg, A., Jernstrom, B., Johansson, C., Kyrklund, T., Rannug, A., Tornqvist, M., Victorin, K., and Westerholm, R.: Cancer Risk Assessment, Indicators, and Guidelines for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Ambient Air, Environ. Health Persp., 110, 451–489, 2002.

Bukowiecki, N., Kittelson, D. B., Watts, W. F., Burtscher, H., Weingartner, E., and Baltensperger, U.: Real-time characterization of ultrafine and accumulation mode particles in ambient combustion aerosols, J. Aerosol Sci., 33(8) 1139–1154, 2002.

Chen, S.-C. and Liao, C.-M.: Health risk assessment on human exposed to environmental polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pollution sources, Sci. Total Environ., 366 112–123, 2006.

Chetwittayachan, T., Shimazaki, D., and Yamamoto, K. A.: A comparison of temporal variation of particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (pPAHs) concentration in different urban environments: Tokyo, Japan, and Bangkok, Thailand, Atmos. Environ., 36(12), 2027–2037, 2002.

Cho, A. K., Sioutas, C., Miguel, A. H., Kumagai, Y., Schmitz, D. A., Singh, M., Eiguren-Fernandez, A., and Froines, J. R.: Redox activity of airborne particulate matter at different sites in the Los Angeles Basin, Environ. Res., 99(1), 40–47, 2005.

Code of Federal Regulations, Vol. 40 CFR, Subpart M, 86.1215-85, Web-site: http://www.epa.gov/OMS/regs/hd-hwy/2000frm/2004frm.pdf, 2004.

Dunbar, J. C., Lin, C.-I., Vergucht, I., Wong, J., and Durant, J. L.: Estimating the contributions of mobile sources of PAH to urban air using real-time PAH monitoring, The Science of the Total Environment 279, 1–19, 2001.

Ferge, T., Maguhn, J., Hafner, K., Muhlberger, F., Davidovic, M., Warnecke, R., Zimmermann, R. On-line analysis of gas-phase composition in the combustion chamber and particle emission characteristics during combustion of wood and waste in a small batch reactor, Environ. Sci. Technol., 39(6), 1393–1402, 2005.

Fissan, H., Neumann, S.,Trampe, A., Pui, D. Y. H., and Shin, W. G.: Rationale and Principle of an Instrument Measuring Lung Deposited Nanoparticle Surface Area, J. Nanopart. Res., 9, 53–59, 2007.

Fujita, E. M., Campbell, D. E., Arnott, W. P., Chow, J. C., and Zielinska, B.: Evaluations of the chemical mass balance method for determining contributions of gasoline and diesel exhaust to ambient carbonaceous aerosols, Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, 57(6), 721–740, 2007.

Harrison, R. M., Smith, D. J. T., and Luhana, L.: Source apportionment of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons collected from an urban location in Birmingham, UK, Environ. Sci. Technol., 30(3), 825–832, 1996.

Hart, K. M., McDow, S. R., Giger, W., Steiner, D., and Burthscher, H.: The correlation between in-situ, real-time aerosol photoemission intensity and particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentration in combustion aerosols, Water, Air, Soil Pollution, 68, 75–90, 1993.

Herndon, S. C., Onasch, T. B., Frank, B. P., Marr, L. C., Jayne, J. T., Canagaratna, M. R., Grygas, J., Lanni, T., Anderson, B. E., Worsnop, D., and Miake-Lye, R. C.: Particulate emissions from in-use commercial aircraft, Aerosol Sci. Tech., 39(8), 799–809, 2005.

International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, 2005), Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenicity to Humans (World Health Organization), IARC website: www.iarc.fr.

Jimenez, J. L., Jayne, J. T., Shi, Q., Kolb, C. E., Worsnop, D. R., Yourshaw, I., Seinfeld, J. H., Flagan, R. C., Zhang, X., Smith, K. A., Morris, J., and Davidovits, P.: Ambient aerosol sampling with an aerosol mass spectrometer, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8425–8438, 2003.

Jung, H. and Kittelson, D. B.: Characterization of Aerosol Surface Instruments in Transition Regime, Aerosol Sci. Technol., 39, 902–911, 2005.

Kelly, K., Wagner, D., Lighty, J., Nunez, M. Q., Vazquez, F. A., Collins, K., and Barud-Zubillaga, A.: Black carbon and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emissions from vehicles in the United States-Mexico border region: Pilot study, Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, 56 (3), 285-293, 2006.

Manchester-Neesvig, J. B., Schauer, J. J, and Cass, G.: The Distribution of Particle-Phase Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere and Their Use for Source Apportionment during the Southern California Children's Health Study, Journal of Air and Waste Management Association, 53, 1065–1079, 2003.

Marr, L. C., Kirchstetter, T. W., Harley, R. A., Miguel, A. H., Hering, S. V., and Hammond, S. K. Characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in motor vehicle fuels and exhaust emissions, Environ. Sci. Technol., 33(18), 3091–3099, 1999.

Marr, L. C., Grogan, L. A., Wohrnschimmel, H., Molina, L. T., Molina, M. J., Smith, T. J., and Garshick, E.: Vehicle traffic as a source of particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposure in the Mexico City metropolitan area, Environ. Sci. Technol., 38(9), 2584–2592, 2004.

Marr, L. C., Dzepina, K., Jimenez, J. L., Reisen, F., Bethel, H. L., Arey, J., Gaffney, J. S., Marley, N. A., Molina, L. T., and Molina, M. J.: Sources and transformations of particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Mexico City, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 1733–1745, 2006.

Matter, U., Siegman, H. C., and Burtscher, H.: Dynamic Field Measurements of Submicron Particles from Diesel engines, Environ. Sci. Technol., 33, 1946–1952, 1999.

Miguel, A. H., Kirchstetter, T. W., Harley, R. A., and Hering, S. V.: On-road emissions of particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and black carbon from gasoline and diesel vehicles, Environ. Sci. Technol., 32(4), 450–455, 1998.

McDow, S. R., Giger, W., Burthscher, H., Schmidt-Ott, A., and Siegmann, H. C. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and combustion aerosol photoemission, Atmos. Environ., 24A, 2911–2916, 1990.

Naumova, Y. Y., Offenberg, J. H., Eisenreich, S. J., Meng, Q., Polidori, A., Turpin, B. J., Weisel, C. P., Morandi, M. T., Colome, S. D., Stock, T. H., Winer, A. M., Alimokhtari, S., Kwon, J., Maberti, S., Shendell, D., Jones, J., and Farrar, C.: Gas/particle distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in coupled outdoor/indoor atmospheres, Atmos. Environ., 37, 703–719, 2003.

Nel, A.: Air pollution-related illness: effects of particles, Science, 309(5739), 1326–1326, 2005.

Niessner, R.: The Chemical Response of the Photo-Electric Aerosol Sensor (PAS) to Different Aerosol Systems, J. Aerosol Sci., 17(4), 705–714, 1986.

Ning, Z., Geller, M. D., Moore, K. F., Sheesley, R., Schauer, J. J., and Sioutas, C.: Daily variation in chemical characteristics of urban ultrafine aerosols and inference of their sources, Environ. Sci. Technol., 41(17), 6000–6006, 2007.

Ning, Z., Polidori, A., Schauer, J. J., and Sioutas, C.: Light- and Heavy-Duty Vehicle Emission Factors of PM species Based on Freeway Measurements and Comparison with Tunnel and Dynamometer Studies, submitted for publication to Atmos. Environ., in press, 2008.

Ntziachristos, L., Ning, A., Geller, M. D., Sheeseley, R. J., Schauer, J. J., and Sioutas, C.: Fine, ultrafine and nanoparticle trace element compositions near a major freeway with a high heavy-duty diesel fraction, Atmos. Environ., 41, 5684–5696, 2007a.

Ntziachristos, L., Ning, Z., Geller, M. D., and Sioutas, C.: Particle concentration and characteristics near a major freeway with heavy-duty diesel traffic, Environ. Sci. Technol., 41(7), 2223–2230, 2007b.

Ntziachristos, L., Polidori, A., Phuleria, H., Geller, M. D., Sioutas, C. Application of a diffusion charger for the measurement of particle surface concentration in different environments, Aerosol Sci. Technol., 41 (6), 571–580, 2007c.

Ott, W. R. and Siegmann, H. C.: Using multiple continuous fine particle monitors to characterize tobacco, incense, candle, cooking, wood burning, and vehicular sources in indoor, outdoor, and in-transit settings, Atmos. Environ., 40, 821–843, 2006.

Phuleria, H. C., Geller, M. D., Fine, P. M., and Sioutas, C.: Size-resolved emissions of organic tracers from light-and heavy-duty vehicles measured in a California roadway tunnel, Environ. Sci. Technol., 40(13), 4109–4118, 2006.

Pope, C. A., Burnett, R. T., Thun, M. J., Calle, E. E., Krewski, D., Ito, K., and Thurston, G. D.: Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 287(9), 1132–1141, 2002.

Pope, C. A., Burnett, R. T., Thurston, G. D., Thun, M. J., Calle, E. E., Krewski, D., and Godleski, J. J.: Cardiovascular mortality and long-term exposure to particulate air pollution – Epidemiological evidence of general pathophysiological pathways of disease, Circulation, 109 (1) 71–77, 2004.

Riddle, S. G., Robert, M. A., Jakober, C. A., Hannigan, M. P., and Kleeman, M. J.: Size Distribution of Trace Organic Species Emitted from Heavy-Duty Diesel Vehicles, Environ. Sci. Technol., 41(6), 1962–1969, 2007a.

Riddle, S. G., Jakober, C. A., Robert, M. A., Cahill, T. M., Charles M. J. and Kleeman, M. J.: Large PAHs detected in fine particulate matter emitted from light-duty gasoline vehicles, Atmos. Environ., 41(38), 8658–8668, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.07.023, 2007b.

Rogers, F., Arnott, P., Zielinska, B., Sagebiel, J., Kelly, K. E., Wagner, D., Lighty, J. S., and Sarofim, A. F.: Real-time measurements of jet aircraft engine exhaust, Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, 55(5), 583–593, 2005.

Sauvain, J. J., Duc, T. V., and Guillemin, M.: Exposure to carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic compounds and health risk assessment for diesel-exhaust exposed workers, International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 76(6), 443–455, 2003.

Schauer, J. J., Rogge, W. F., Hildemann, L. M., Mazurek, M. A., and Cass, G. R.: Source apportionment of airborne particulate matter using organic compounds as tracers, Atmos. Environ., 30(22) 3837–3855, 1996.

Schauer, J. J., Kleeman, M. J., Cass, G. R., and Simoneit, B. R. T.: Measurement of emissions from air pollution sources, 2. C-1 through C-30 organic compounds from medium duty diesel trucks, Environ. Sci. Technol., 33(10), 1578–1587, 1999.

Schauer, J. J., Kleeman, M. J., Cass, G. R., and Simoneit, B. R. T.: Measurement of emissions from air pollution sources, 5. C1-C32 organic compounds from gasoline-powered motor vehicles, Environ. Sci. Technol., 36, 1169–1180, 2002.

Schauer, J. J.: Evaluation of elemental carbon as a marker for diesel particulate matter, Sci. Total Environ., 366, 112–123, 2003.

Siegmann, K. and Siegmann, H. C.: Fast and reliable "in situ" evaluation of particles and their surfaces with special reference to diesel exhaust, SAE Technical Paper Series, 2000-01-1995, 1–7, 2000.

Sheesley, R. J., Schauer, J. J., Smith N. D., and Hays M. D.: Development of a standardized method for the analysis of organic compounds present in PM$_2.5$, in: Proceedings of the AWMA Annual Meeting 2000, Salt Lake City, UT, 2000.

Sheesley, R. J., Schauer, J. J., Bean, E., and Kenski, D.: Trends in secondary organic aerosol at a remote site in Michigan's upper peninsula, Environ. Sci. Technol., 38(24), 6491–6500, 2004.

Wallace, L.: Real-Time Measurements of Black Carbon Indoors and Outdoors: A Comparison of the Photoelectric Aerosol Sensor and the Aethalometer, Aerosol Sci. Technol., 39, 1015–1025, 2005.

Wasserkort, R., Hartmann, A., Widmer, R. M., and Burthscher, H.: Correlation between on-line PAH detection in airborne particle samples and their bacterial genotoxicity, Ecotox. Environ. Safe., 40, 126–136, 1996.

World Health Organization (WHO): Air Quality Guidelines for Europe, 2000. Website: http://www.euro.who.int/air.

Zhiqiang, Q., Siegmann, K., Keller, A., Matter, U., Scherrer, L., and Siegmann, H.C.: Nanoparticle air pollution in major cities and its origin, Atmos. Environ., 34, 443–451, 2000.

Zielinska, B., Sagebiel, J., McDonald, J. D., Whitney, K. and Lawson,D. R.: Emission rates and comparative chemical composition from selected in-use diesel and gasoline-fueled vehicles, Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, 54(9), 1138–1150, 2004.