References

ACP

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

ACP

1680-7324

Copernicus GmbH

Göttingen, Germany

10.5194/acp-7-2073-2007

Evaluation of a global aerosol microphysics model against size-resolved particle statistics in the marine atmosphere

Spracklen

D. V.

¹ Pringle

K. J.

¹ ³ Carslaw

K. S.

¹ Mann

G. W.

¹ Manktelow

¹ Heintzenberg

Institute for Atmospheric Science, School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, UK

Leibniz-Institute for Tropospheric Research, Permoserstr., 04318 Leipzig, Germany

now at: Met Office, Hadley Centre, Exeter, UK

26 04 2007

7 8 2073 2090

This is an open-access article ditributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

This article is available from http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/7/2073/2007/acp-7-2073-2007.html

The full text article is available as a PDF file from http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/7/2073/2007/acp-7-2073-2007.pdf

A statistical synthesis of marine aerosol measurements from experiments in four different oceans is used to evaluate a global aerosol microphysics model (GLOMAP). We compare the model against observed size resolved particle concentrations, probability distributions, and the temporal persistence of different size particles. We attempt to explain the observed sub-micrometre size distributions in terms of sulfate and sea spray and quantify the possible contributions of anthropogenic sulfate and carbonaceous material to the number and mass distribution. The model predicts a bimodal size distribution that agrees well with observations as a grand average over all regions, but there are large regional differences. Notably, observed Aitken mode number concentrations are more than a factor 10 higher than in the model for the N Atlantic but a factor 7 lower than the model in the NW Pacific. We also find that modelled Aitken mode and accumulation mode geometric mean diameters are generally smaller in the model by 10–30%. Comparison with observed free tropospheric Aitken mode distributions suggests that the model underpredicts growth of these particles during descent to the marine boundary layer (MBL). Recent observations of a substantial organic component of free tropospheric aerosol could explain this discrepancy. We find that anthropogenic continental material makes a substantial contribution to N Atlantic MBL aerosol, with typically 60–90% of sulfate across the particle size range coming from anthropogenic sources, even if we analyse air that has spent an average of >120 h away from land. However, anthropogenic primary black carbon and organic carbon particles (at the emission size and quantity assumed here) do not explain the large discrepancies in Aitken mode number. Several explanations for the discrepancy are suggested. The lack of lower atmospheric particle formation in the model may explain low N Atlantic particle concentrations. However, the observed and modelled particle persistence at Cape Grim in the Southern Ocean, does not reveal a diurnal cycle consistent with a photochemically driven local particle source. We also show that a physically based cloud drop activation scheme better explains the observed change in accumulation mode geometric mean diameter with particle number.

References 1

Adams, P. and Seinfeld, J.: Predicting global aerosol size distributions in general circulation models, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 107, 4370, doi:10.1029/2001JD001010, 2002.

Adams, P. and Seinfeld, J.: Disproportionate impact of particulate emissions on global cloud condensation nuclei concentrations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(5), 1239, doi:10.1029/2002GL016303, 2003.

Andres, R. and Kasgnoc, A.: A time-averaged inventory of subaerial volcanic sulfur emissions, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 103, 25 251–25 261, 1998.

Bates, T., Huebert, B., Gras, J., Griffiths, F., and Durkee, P.: International Global Atmospheric Chemistry (IGAC) project's first Aerosol Characterization Experiment (ACE 1): Overview, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 103, 16 297–16 318, 1998a.

Bates, T., Kapustin, V., Quinn, P., Covert, D., Coffman, D., Mari, C., Durkee, P., De~Bruyn, W., and Saltzman, E.: Processes controlling the distribution of aerosol particles in the lower marine boundary layer during the First Aerosol Characterization Experiement (ACE 1), J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 103, 16 369–16 383, 1998b.

Bates, T., Quinn, P., Coffman, D., Johnson, J., Miller, T., Covert, D., Wiedensohler, A., Leinert, S., Nowark, A., and Neususs, C.: Regional physical and chemical properties of the marine boundary layer aerosol across the Atlantic during Aerosols99: An overview, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 106, 20 767–20 782, 2001.

Bates, T S., Coffman, D., Covert, D S., and Quinn, P.: Regional marine boundary layer aerosol size distributions in the Indian, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans: A comparison of INDOEX measurements with ACE-1, ACE-2, and Aerosols99, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 2002.

Benkovitz, C., Scholtz, M., Pacyna, J., Tarrasón, L., Dignon, J., Voldner, E., Spiro, P., Logan, J., and Graedel, T.: Global gridded inventories of anthropogenic emissions of sulfur and nitrogen, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 101, 29 239–29 253, 1996.

Bigg, E., Gras, J., and Mossop, D.: Wind-produced submicron particles in the marine atmosphere, Atmos. Res., 36, 55–68, 1995.

Bigg, E., Leck, C., and Tranvik, L.: Particulates of the surface microlayer of open water in the central Arctic Ocean in summer, Mar. Chem., 91, 131–141, 2004.

Bond, T., Streets, D., Yarber, K., Nelson, S., Woo, J.-H., and Klimont, Z.: A technology-based global inventory of black and organic carbon emissions from combustion, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 109, doi:10.1029/2003JD003697, 2004.

Capaldo, K., Kasibhatla, P., and Pandis, S.: Is aerosol production within the marine boundary layer sufficient to maintain observed concentrations?, J. Geophys. Res. - Atmos., 104, 3483–3500, 1999.

Chin, M., Jacob, D., Gardner, G., Foreman-Fowler, M., Spiro, P., and Savoie, D.: A global three-dimensional model of tropospheric sulfate, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 101, 18 667–18 690, 1996.

Chin, M., Rood, R., Lin, S.-J., Müller, J.-F., and Thompson, A.: Atmospheric sulfur cycle simulated in the global model GOCART: Model description and global properties, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 105, 24 671–24 687, 2000.

Chipperfield, M.: New Version of the TOMCAT/SLIMCAT off-line chemical transport model: Intercomparison of stratospheric tracer experiments, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 132(617), 1179–1203, doi:10.1256/qj.05.51, 2006.

Chipperfield, M., Cariolle, D., Simon, P., Ramaroson, R., and Lary, D.: A three-dimensional modeling study of trace species in the Arctic lower stratosphere during winter 1989–90, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 98, 7199–7218, 1993.

Clarke, A. and Kapustin, V.: A Pacific Aerosol Survey. Part I: A Decade of Data on Particle Production, Transport, Evolution, and Mixing in the Troposphere, J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 363–382, 2002.

Clarke, A., Davis, D., Kapustin, V., Eisele, F., Chen, G., Paluch, I., Lenschow, D., Bandy, A., Thornton, D., Moore, K., Mauldin, L., Tanner, D., Litchy, M., Carroll, M., Collins, J., and Albercook, G.: Particle Nucleation in the Tropical Boundary Layer and Its Coupling to Marine Sulfur Sources, Science, 282, 89–92, 1998.

Clarke, A., Owens, S., and Zhou, J.: An ultrafine sea-salt flux from breaking waves: Implications for cloud condensation nuclei in the remote marine atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 111, D06202, doi:10.1019/2005JD006565, 2006.

Covert, D., Kapustin, V., Quinn, P., and Bates, T.: New Particle Formation in the Marine Boundary Layer, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 97, 20 581–20 589, 1992.

Covert, D., Kapustin, V., Bates, T., and Quinn, P.: Physical properties of marine boundary layer aerosol particles of the mid-Pacific in relation to sources and meteorological transport, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 101, 6919–6930, 1996.

Covert, D., Gras, J., Wiedensohler, A., and Stratmann, F.: Comparison of directly measured CCN with CCN modeled from the number-size distribution in the marine boundary layer during ACE 1 at Cape Grim, Tasmania, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 103, 16 597–16 608, 1998.

Dentener, F., Kinne, S., Bond, T., Boucher, O Cofala, J., Generoso, S., Ginoux, P., Gong, S., Hoelzemann, J., Ito, A., Marelli, L., Penner, J., Putaud, J.-P., Textor, C., Schulz, M., van~der Werf, M., and Wilson, J.: Emissions of primary aerosol and precursor gases in the years 2000 and 1750 prescribed data-sets for AeroCom, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 4321–4344, 2006.

Easter, R., Ghan, S., Zhang, Y., Saylor, R., Chapman, E., Laulainen, N., Abdul-Razzak, H., Leung, L., Bian, X., and Zaveri, R.: MIRAGE: Model description and evaluation of aerosols and trace gases, J. Geophys. Res.- Atmos., 109, D20210, doi:10.1029/2004JD004571, 2004.

Fitzgerald, J.: Marine aerosols: A review, Atmos. Environ., 25, 533–545, 1991.

Geever, M., O'Dowd, C., van Ekeren, S., Flanagan, R., Nilsson, E., and de~Leeuw~G, Rannik, U.: Submicron sea spray fluxes, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, doi:10.1029/2005GL023 081, 2005.

Ghan, S., Easter, R., Hudson, J., and Breon, F.-M.: Evaluation of aerosol indirect radiative forcing in MIRAGE, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 106, 5317–5334, 2001.

Gong, S.: A parameterization of sea-salt aerosol source function for sub- and super-micron particles, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 17, 1097–1103, 2003.

Gong, S., Barrie, L., and Lazare, M.: Canadian Aerosol Module (CAM): A size-segregated simulation of atmospheric aerosol processes for climate and air quality models, 2. Global sea-salt and its budgets, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 107, 4479, doi:10.1029/2001JD002004, 2002.

Gong, S., Barrie, L., Blanchet, J.-P., von Salzen, K., Lohmann, U., Lesins, G., Spacek, L., Zhang, L., Girard, E., Lin, H., Leaitch, R., Leighton, H., Chylek, P., and Huang, P.: Canadian Aerosol Module: A size-segregated simulation of atmospheric aerosol processes for climate and air quality models 1. Module development, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108, 4007, doi:10.1029/2001JD002002, 2003.

Heald, C., Jacob, D., Park, R., Russell, L. annd~Huebert, B., Seinfeld, J., Liao, H., and Weber, R.: A large organic aerosol source in the free troposphere missing from current models, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, doi:10.1029/2005GL023831, 2005.

Heintzenberg, J. and Bigg, E.: Tropospheric transport of trace substances in the southern hemisphere, Tellus, 42B, 355–363, 1990.

Heintzenberg, J., Covert, D., and Van~Dingenen, R.: Size distribution and chemical composition of marine aerosols: a compilation and review, Tellus, Ser. B, 52B, 1104–1122, 2000.

Heintzenberg, J., Birmili, W., Wiedensohler, A., Nowak, A., and Tuch, T.: Structure, variability and persistence of the submicrometre marine aerosol, Tellus, Ser. B, 56B, 357–367, 2004.

Heintzenberg, J., Leck, C., Birmili, W., Wehner, B., Tjernström, M., and Wiedensohler, A.: Aerosol number-size distributions during clear and fog periods in the summer high Arctic, Tellus, 58B, 41–50, 2006.

Herzog, M., Weisenstein, D., and Penner, J.: A dynamic aerosol module for global chemical transport models: Model description, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 109, D18202, doi:10.1029/2003JD004405, 2004.

Holtslag, A. and Boville, B.: Local versus nonlocal boundary layer diffusion in a globl climate model, J. Clim., 6, 1825–1842, 1993.

Huebert, B., Bates, T., Russell, P., Shi, G., KIm, Y., and Kawamura, K.: An overview of ACE Asia: Strategies for quantifying the relationships between Asian aerosols and their climatic impacts, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108(D23), 8633, doi:10.1029/2003JD003550, 2003.

Katoshevski, D., Nenes, A., and Seinfeld, J.: A study of processes that govern the maintenance of aerosols in the marine boundary layer, J. Aerosol Sci., 30, 503–532, 1999.

Kettle, A., Andreae, M., Amouroux, D., Andreae, T., Bates, T., Berresheim, H., Bingemer, H., Boniforti, R., Curran, M., DiTullio, G., Helas, G., Jones, G., Keller, M., Kiene, R., Leck, C., Levasseur, M., Malin, G., Maspero, M., Matrai, P., McTaggart, A., Mihalopoulos, N., Nguyen, B., Novo, A., Putaud, J., Rapsomanikis, S., Roberts, G., Schebeske, G., Sharma, S., Simö, R., Staubes, R., Turner, S., and Uher, G.: A global database of sea surface dimethylsulfide (DMS) measurements and a procedure to predict sea surface DMS as a function of latitude, longitude and month, Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 13, 399–444, 1999.

Koch, D., Jacob, D., Tegen, I., Rind, D., and Chin, M.: Tropospheric sulfur simulation and sulfate direct radiative forcing in the Goddard Institute for Space Studies general circulation model, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 104, 23 799–23 822, 1999.

Kreidenweis, S., Penner, J., Yin, F., and Seinfeld, J.: The effects of dimethylsulfide upon marine aerosol concentrations, Atmospheric Environment Part A - General Topics, 25, 2501–2511, 1991.

Kulmala, M., Laaksonen, A., and Pirjola, L.: Parameterizations for sulfuric acid/water nucleation rates, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 103, 8301–8307, 1998.

Kulmala, M., Vehkamäki, H., Petajda, T., Dal~Maso, M., Lauri, A., Kerminen, V., Birmili, W., and McMurry, P.: Formation and growth rates of ultrafine atmospheric particles: a review of observations, J. Aerosol Sci., 35, 143–176, 2004.

Lauer, A. and Hendricks, J.: Simulating aerosol microphysics with the ECHAM4/MADE GCM – Part II: Results from a first multiannual simulation of the submicrometer aerosol, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 5495–5513, 2006.

Lauer, A., Hendricks, J., Ackermann, I., Schell, B., Hass, H., and Metzger, S.: Simulating aerosol microphysics with the ECHAM/MADE GCM - Part I: Model description and comparison with observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 3251–3276, 2005.

Leck, C. and Bigg, E.: Aerosol production over remote marine areas – A new route, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 3577–3581, 1999.

Leck, C., Norman, M., Bigg, E., and Hillamo, R.: Chemical composition and sources of the high Arctic aerosol relevant for cloud formation, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 107(D2), doi:10.1029/2001JD001463, 2002.

Leck, C., Tjernstrom, M., Matrai, P., Swietlicki, E., and Bigg, K.: Can marine micro-organisms influence melting of the Arctic pack ice?, EOS, 85, 25–36, 2004.

Lewis, E. and Schwartz, S.: Sea Salt Aerosol Production: Mechanisms, Methods, Measurements, and Models – A Critical Review, American Geophysical Union, Washington, 2004.

Leck, C. and Bigg, E.: Source and evolution of the marine aerosol – A new perspective, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L19803, doi:10.1029/2005GL023651, 2005a.

Leck, C. and Bigg, E.: Biogenic particles in the surface microlayer and overlaying atmosphere in the central Arctic Ocean during summer, Tellus, 57B, 305–316, 2005b.

Lin, X., Chameides, W., Kiang, C., Stelson, A., and Berresheim, H.: A model study of the formation of cloud condensation nuclei in remote marine areas, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 97, 18 161–18 171, 1992.

Liss, P. and Merlivat, L.: The Role of Air-Sea Exchange in Geochemical Cycling, chap. Air-sea gas exchange rates: Introduction and synthesis, 113–127, D. Reidel, Norwell, Mass., 1986.

Lohmann, U. and Leck, C.: Importance of submicron surface-active organic aerosols for pristine Arctic clouds, Tellus, 57B, 261–268, 2005.

Martensson, E., Nilsson, E., Leeuw, G., Cohen, L., and Hansson, H.: Laboratory simulations and parameterization of the primary marine aerosol production, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108(D9), 4297, doi:10.1029/2002JD002263, 2003.

Meskhidze, N., Nenes, A., Conant, W., and Seinfeld, J.: Evaluation of a new cloud droplet activation parameterization with in situ data from CRYSTAL-FACE and CSTRIPE, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 110, D16202, doi:10.1029/2004JD005703, 2005.

Monahan, E., Spiel, D., and Davidson, K.: Oceanic Whitecaps, chap. A model of marine aerosol generation via whitecaps and wave disruption, 167–174, D. Reidel, Norwell, Mass., 1986.

Nenes, A. and Seinfeld, J.: Parameterisation of cloud droplet formation in global climate models, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108(D14), 4415, doi:10.1029/2002JD002911, 2003.

Nilsson, E., Rannik, U., Swietlicki, E., Leck, C., Aalto, P., Zhou, J., and Norman, M.: Turbulent aerosol fluxes aver the Arctic Ocean: 2. Wind-driven sources from the sea, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 106, 32 139–32 154, 2001.

O'Dowd, C., Smith, M., Consterdine, I., and Lowe, J.: Marine aerosol, sea-salt, and the marine sulphur cycle: a short review, Atmos. Environ., 31, 73–80, 1997.

O'Dowd, C., McFiggans, G., Creasey, D., Pirjola, L., Hoell, C., Smith, M., Allan, B., Plane, J., Heard, D., Lee, J., Pilling, M., and Kulmala, M.: On the photochemical production of new particles in the coastal boundary layer, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 1707–1710, 1999.

O'Dowd, C., Facchini, M., Cavalli, F., Ceburnis, D., Mircea, M., Decesari, S., Fuzzi, S., Yoon, Y., and Putaud, J.: Biogenically driven organic contribution to marine aerosol, Nature, 431, 676–680, 2004.

Pandis, S., Russell, L., and Seinfeld, J.: The relationship between DMS flux and CCN concentration in remote marine regions, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 99, 16 945–19 957, 1994.

Pawlowska, H. and Brenguier, J.: Microphysical properties of stratocumulus clouds during ACE 2, Tellus, 2000.

Pierce, J. and Adams, P.: Global evaluation of CCN formation by direct emission of sea salt and growth of ultrafine sea salt, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 111, D06203, doi:10.1029/2005JD006186, 2006.

Pirjola, L., O'Dowd, C., Brooks, I., and Kulmala, M.: Can new particle formation occur in the clean marine boundary layer?, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 105, 26 531–26 546, 2000.

Prather, M.: Numerical Advection by Conservation of Second-Order Moments, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 91, 6671–6681, 1986.

Raes, F.: Entrainment of free tropsospheric aerosols as a regulating mechanism for cloud condensation nuclei in the remote marine boundary layer, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 100, 2893–2903, 1995.

Raes, F. and Van~Dingenen, R.: Simulations of condensation and cloud condenstaion nuclei from biogenic SO<sub>2</sub> in the remote marine boundary-layer, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 97, 12 901–12 912, 1992.

Raes, F., Wilson, J., and Van~Dingenen, R.: Aerosol Forcing of Climate, chap. Aerosol Dynamics and its Implication for the global aerosol climatology, pp. 153–169, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1995.

Raes, F., Van~Dingenen, R., Cuevas, E., Van~Vaethoven, P., and Prospero, J.: Observations of aerosols in the free troposphere and marine boundary layer of the subtropical notheast Atlantic: Discussion of processes determining their size distribution, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 102, 21 315–21 328, 1997.

Raes, F., Bates, T., McGovern, F., and Vanliedekerke, M.: The second Aerosol Characterization Experiment (ACE 2): General overview and main results, Tellus, 52, 111–125, 2000.

Ramanathan, V., Crutzen, P., Kiehl, J., and Rosenfeld, D.: Aerosols, climate, and the hydrological cycle, Science, 294, 2119–2124, 2001.

Rasch, P., Barth, M., Kiehl, J., Schwartz, S., and Benkovitz, C.: A description of the global sulfur cycle and its controlling processes in the National Center for Atmospheric Research Community Climate Model, Version 3, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 105, 1367–1385, 2000.

Rodriguez, M. A. and Dabdub, D.: IMAGES-SCAPE2: A modeling study of size- and chemically resolved aerosol thermodynamics in a global chemical transport model, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 109, D02203, doi:10/1029/2003JD003639, 2004.

Rossow, W. and Schiffer, R.: Advances in Understanding Clouds From ISCCP, Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 80, 2261–2287, 1999.

Russell, L., Pandis, S., and Seinfeld, J.: Aerosol production and growth in the marine boundary layer, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 99, 20 989–21 003, 1994.

Russell, P. and Heintzenberg, J.: An overview of the ACE 2 Clear Sky Column Closure experiment (CLEARCOLUMN), Tellus, 52B, 463–483, 2000.

Spracklen, D., Pringle, K., Carslaw, K., Chipperfield, M., and Mann, G.: A global off-line model of size-resolved aerosol microphysics; I. Model development and prediction of aerosol properties, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 2227–2252, 2005a.

Spracklen, D., Pringle, K., Carslaw, K., Chipperfield, M., and Mann, G.: A global off-line model of size-resolved aerosol microphysics; II. Identification of key uncertainties, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 3233–3250, 2005b.

Spracklen, D., Carslaw, K., Kulmala, M., Kerminen, V.-M., Mann, G., and Sihto, S.-L.: The contribution of boundary layer nucleation events to total particle concentrations on regional and global scales, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 7323–7368, 2006.

Stier, P., Feichter, J., Kinne, S., Kloster, S., Vignati, E., Wilson, J., Ganzeveld, L., Tegen, I., Werner, M., Balkanski, Y., Schulz, M., Boucher, O., Minikin, A., and Petzold, A.: The aerosol-climate ECHAM5-HAM, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 1125–1156, 2005.

Stockwell, D. and Chipperfield, M.: A tropospheric chemical-transport model: Development and validation of the model transport schemes, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 125, 1747–1783, 1999.

Tang, Y., Carmichael, G., Kurata, G., Uno, I., Weber, R., Song, C.-H., Guttikunda, S., Woo, J.-H., ~, Streets, D., Wei, C., Clarke, A., Huebert, B., and Anderson, T.: Impacts of dust on regional tropospheric chemistry during the ACE-Asia experiment: A model study with observations, J. Geophys. Res.- Atmos., 109, D19s21, doi:10.1029/2003JD003806, 2004.

Tiedtke, M.: A comprehensive mass flux scheme for cumulus parameterization in large scale models, Mon. Wea. Review, 117, 1779–1800, 1989.

Van~der Werf, G., Randerson, J., Collatz, G., and Giglio, L.: Carbon emissions from fires in tropical and subtropical ecosystems, Global Change Biology, 9, 547–562, 2003.

Van~Dingenen, R., Raes, F., and Jensen, N.: Evidence for anthropogenic impact on number concentration and sulfate content of cloud-processed aerosol particles over the North Atlantic, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 100, 21 057–21 067, 1995.

Vehkamäki, H., Kulmala, M., Napari, I., Lehtinen, K., Timmreck, C., Noppel, M., and Laaksonen, A.: An improved parametrization for sulfuric acid-water nucleation rates for tropospheric and stratospheric conditions, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 107, 4622–4631, 2002.

Verma, S., Boucher, O., Reddy, M., Upadhyaya, H., Le~Van, P., Binkowski, F., and Sharma, O.: Modeling and analysis of aerosol processes in an interactive chemistry general circulation model, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 112, D03207, doi:10.1029/2005JD006077, 2007.

Vignati, E., Wilson, J., and Stier, P.: M7: An efficient size-resolved aerosol microphysics module for large-scale aerosol transport models, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 109, D22202, doi:10.1029/2003JD004485, 2004.

Weber, R., McMurry, P., Eisele, F., and Tanner, D.: Measurement of expected nucleation precursor species and 3-500 nm diameter particles at Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii, J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 2242–2256, 1995.

Weber, R., McMurry, P., Mauldin, L., Tanner, D., Eisele, F., Brechtel, F., Kreidenweis, S., Kok, G., Schillawski, R., and Baumgardner, D.: A study of new particle formation and growth involving biogenic and trace gas species measured during ACE 1, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 103, 16 385–16 396, 1998.

Wilson, J., Cuvelier, C., and Raes, F.: A modeling study of global mixed aerosol fields, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 106, 34 081–34 108, 2001.

Zhou, J., Swietlicki, E., Berg, O., Aalto, P., Hameri, K., Nilsson, E., and Leck, C.: Hygroscopic properties of aerosol particles over the central Arctic Ocean during summer, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 106, 32 111–32 123, 2001.