References

ACP

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

ACP

1680-7324

Copernicus GmbH

Göttingen, Germany

10.5194/acp-6-2525-2006

Atmospheric transport and deposition of Indonesian volcanic emissions

Pfeffer

M. A.

¹ Langmann

¹ Graf

H.-F.

Department of the Atmosphere in the Earth System, Max-Planck-Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, Germany

Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

30 06 2006

6 9 2525 2537

This is an open-access article ditributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

This article is available from http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/6/2525/2006/acp-6-2525-2006.html

The full text article is available as a PDF file from http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/6/2525/2006/acp-6-2525-2006.pdf

A regional climate model has been used to study the transport and deposition of sulfur (SO2 and SO42-) and PbCl2 emissions from Indonesian volcanoes. The sensitivity of the atmospheric loss of these trace species to meteorological conditions and their solubility was examined. Two experiments were conducted: 1) volcanic sulfur released as primarily SO2 and subject to transport, deposition, and oxidation to SO42-; and 2) PbCl2 released as an infinitely soluble passive tracer subject to only transport and deposition. The first experiment was used to calculate SO2 loss rates from each active Indonesian volcano producing an annual mean loss rate for all volcanoes of 1.1×10-5 s-1, or an e-folding rate of approximately 1 day. SO2 loss rate was found to vary seasonally, be poorly correlated with wind speed, and uncorrelated with temperature or relative humidity. The variability of SO2 loss rates is found to be correlated with the variability of wind speeds, suggesting that it is much more difficult to establish a "typical'' SO2 loss rate for volcanoes that are exposed to changeable winds. Within an average distance of 70 km away from the active Indonesian volcanoes, 53% of SO2 loss is due to conversion to SO42-, 42% due to dry deposition, and 5% due to lateral transport away from the dominant direction of plume travel. The solubility of volcanic emissions in water is shown to influence their atmospheric transport and deposition. High concentrations of PbCl2 are predicted to be deposited near to the volcanoes while volcanic S travels further away until removal from the atmosphere primarily via the wet deposition of H2SO4. The ratio of the concentration of PbCl2 to SO2 is found to exponentially decay at increasing distance from the volcanoes. The more rapid removal of highly soluble species should be considered when observing SO2 in an aged plume and relating this concentration to other volcanic species. An assumption that the ratio between the concentrations of highly soluble volcanic compounds and SO2 within a plume is equal to that observed in fumarolic gases is reasonable at small distances from the volcanic vent, but will result in an underestimation of the emission flux of highly soluble species.

References 1

Andres, R. J. and Kasgnoc, A. D.: A time-averaged inventory of subaerial volcanic sulfur emissions, J. Geophys. Res., 103(D19), 25 251–25 261, 1998.

Bardintzeff, J.-M. and McBirney, A. R.: Volcanology, second edition, Jones and Bartlett, 2000.

Bluth, G. J. S., Casadevall, T. J., Schnetzler, C. C., Doiron, S. D., Walter, L. S., Krueger, A. J., and Badruddin, M.: Evaluation of sulfur dioxide emissions from explosive volcanism: the 1982–1983 eruptions of Galunggung, Java, Indonesia, J. Volcan. Geotherm. Res., 63, 243–256, 1994.

Bluth, G. J. S., Rose, W. I., Sprod, I. E., and Krueger, A. J.: Stratospheric loading of sulfur from explosive volcanic eruptions, J. Geol., 105, 671–683, 1997.

Chang, J. S., Brost, R. A., Isaksen, S. A., Madronich, S., Middleton, O., Stockwell, W. R., and Walcek, C. J.: A three dimensional Eulerian acid deposition model physical concepts and formulations, J. Geophys. Res., 92, 14 581–14 700, 1987.

Lide, D. R. and Frederikse, H. P. R. (Eds.): CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press, 1993.

Delmelle, P.: Environmental impacts of tropospheric volcanic gas plumes, in: Volcanic Degassing, edited by: Oppenheimer, C., Pyle, D. M., and Barclay, J., London, Geol. Soc. Lon., Special Publication, 213, 381–399, 2003.

Esterle, J. S. and Ferm, J. C.: Spatial variability in modern tropical peat deposits from Sarawak, Malaysia and Sumatra, Indonesia: analogues for coal, Int. J. Coal Geol., 26, 1–41, 1994.

Fujita, S.-i., Sakuri, T., Matsuda, K.: Wet and dry deposition of sulfur associated with the eruption of Miyakejima volcano, Japan. J. Geophys. Res., 108(D15), 4444, doi:10.1029/2002JD003064, 2003.

Graf, H. F., Feichter, J., and Langmann, B.: Volcanic sulfur emissions: Estimates of source strength and its contribution to the global sulfate distribution, J. Geophys. Res., 102(D9), 10 727–10 738, 1997.

Halmer, M. M., Schmincke, D. J., and Graf, H.-F.: The annual volcanic gas input into the atmosphere, in particular into the stratosphere: A global data set for the past 100 years, J. Volcan. Geotherm. Res., 115, 511–528, 2002.

Halmer, M. M. and Schmincke, H.-U.: The impact of moderate-scale explosive eruptions on stratospheric gas injections, Bull. Volcanol., 65, 433–440, 2003.

Heil, A., Langmann, B., and Aldrian, E.: Indonesian peat and vegetation fire emissions: Study on factors influencing large-scale smoke haze pollution using a regional atmospheric chemistry model, Mit. Adapt. Strat. Glob. Ch., doi:10.1007/s11027-006-9045-6, 2006.

Hilton, D., Fischer, T. P., and Marty, B.: Noble gases and volatile recycling at subduction zones, in: Reviews in Mineralogy & Geochemistry – Noble Gases in Geochemistry and Cosmochemistry, edited by: Porcelli, D., Ballentine, C. J., and Weiler, R., Washington D.C., Min. Soc. Am., 47, 319–370, 2002.

Hinkley, T. K., Lamothe, P. J., Wilson, S. A., Finnegan, D. L., and Gerlach, T. M.: Metal emissions from Kilauea, and suggested revision of the estimated worldwide metal output by quiescent degassing of volcanoes, Earth Plan. Lett., 170, 315–325, 1999.

Jacob, D.: A note to the simulation of the annual and inter-annual variability of the water budget over the Baltic Sea drainage basin, Met. Atmos. Phys., 77, 61–73, 2001.

Kylander, M. E., Weiss, D. J., Mart\'inez Cort\'izas, A., Spiro, B., Garcia-Sanchez, R., and Colesab, B. J.: Refining the pre-industrial atmospheric Pb isotope evolution curve in Europe using an 8,000 year old peat core from NW Spain, Earth Plan. Sci. Lett., 240, 2, 467–485, 2005.

Langmann, B.: Numerical modelling of regional scale transport and photochemistry directly together with meteorological processes, Atmos. Environ., 34, 3585–3598, 2000.

Langmann, B. and Graf, H. F.: Indonesian smoke aerosols from peat fires and the contribution from volcanic sulfur emissions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(11), 1547, doi:10.1029/2002GL016646, 2003.

LeGuern, F.: Les d\'ebits de \chemCO_2 et de \chemSO_2 volcaniques dans l'atmosph\`ere, Bull. Volcanol., 45(3), 197–202, 1982.

Majewski, D.: The Europa Modell of the Deutscher Wetterdienst, Sem. Proc. ECMWF, 2, 147–191, 1991.

Mather, T. A., Pyle, D. M., and Oppenheimer, C.: Tropospheric volcanic aerosol, in Robock, A. and Oppenheimer, C., eds: Volcanism and the Earth's atmosphere, Geophysical Monograph 139, Washington D.C., AGU, 189–212, 2003.

McGonigle, A. J. S. and Oppenheimer, C.: Optical sensing of volcanic gas and aerosol emissions, in: Volcanic Degassing, edited by: Oppenheimer, C., Pyle, D. M., and Barclay, J., London, Geol. Soc. Lon., Special Publication 213, 149–168, 2003.

McGonigle, A. J. S., Delmelle, P., Oppenheimer, C., Tsanev, V. I., Delfosse, T., Williams-Jones, G., Horton, K., and Mather, T. A.: \chemSO_2 depletion in tropospheric volcanic plumes, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L13201, doi:10.1029/2004GL019990, 2004.

Mellor, B. and Yamada, T.: A hierarchy of turbulence closure models for planetary boundary layers, J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 1791–1806, 1974.

Moore, T., Blodau, C., Turunen, J., Roulet, N., and Richard, P. J. H.: Patterns of \chemnitrogen and \chemsulfur accumulation and retention in ombrotrophic bogs, eastern Canada, Gl. Ch. Biol., 11, 356–367, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2004.00882.x, 2004.

Newhall, C. G. and Self, S.: The volcanic explosivity index (VEI): An estimate of explosive magnitude for historical volcanism, J. Geophys. Res., 87, 1231–1238, 1982.

Nho, E.-Y., Le Cloarec, M.-F., Ardouin, B., and Tjetjep, W. S.: Source strength assessment of volcanic trace elements emitted from the Indonesian arc, J. Volcan. Geotherm. Res., 74, 121–129, 1996.

Nov\'ak, M., Adomov\'a, M., Wieder, R. K., Bottrell, S. H.: Sulfur mobility in peat, Appl. Geochem., 20, 673–681, 2005.

Nriagu, J. O.: A global assessment of natural sources of atmospheric trace metals, Nature, 338, 47–49, 1989.

Oppenheimer, C., Francis, P., and Stix, J.: Depletion rates of sulfur dioxide in tropospheric volcanic plumes, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25(14), 2671–2674, 1998.

Page, S. E., Rieley, J. O., Shotyk, \O. W., and Weiss, D.: Interdependence of peat and vegetation in a tropical peat swamp forest, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, 354, 1885–1897, 1999.

Pfeffer, M. A., Rietmeijer, F. J. M., Brearley, A. J., and Fischer, T. P.: Electron microbeam analyses of aerosol particles from the plume of Po\'as Volcano, Costa Rica and comparison with equilibrium plume chemistry modeling, J. Volcan. Geotherm. Res., 152, 1–2, 174–188, 2006.

Pyle, D. M. and Mather, T. A.: The importance of volcanic emissions for the global atmospheric mercury cycle, Atmos. Environ., 37, 5115–5124, 2003.

Roeckner, E., Arpe, K., Bengtsson, L., Christoph, M., Claussen, M., Duemenis, L., Esch, M., Giorgetta, M., Schlese, M., and Schulzweida, U.: The atmospheric general circulation model ECHAM-4: Model description and simulation of present-day climate, MPI Rep., 218, Hamburg, Germany, 1996.

Roos-Barraclough, F., Martinez-Cortizas, A., Garc\'ia-Rodeja, E., and Shotyk, W.: A 14,500 year record of the accumulation of atmospheric mercury in peat: Volcanic signals, anthropogenic influences and a correlation to bromine accumulation, Earth. Plan. Sci. Lett., 202, 435–451, 2002.

Schnetzler, C. C., Bluth, G. J. S., Krueger, A. J., and Walter, L. S.: A proposed volcanic sulfur dioxide index (VSI), J. Geophys. Res., 102, 20 087–20 092, 1997.

Shimada, S., Takahashi, H., Haraguchi, A., and Kaneko, M.: The carbon content characteristics of tropical peats in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia: Estimating their spatial variability in density, Biogeochem., 53, 3, 249–267, 2001.

Simkin, T.: Terrestrial volcanism in space and time, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 21, 427–452, 1993.

Simkin, T. and Siebert, L.: Volcanoes of the World, 2nd ed., Geoscience Press in association with the Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program, Tucson AZ, 1994.

Smolarkiewitz, P. K.: A simple positive definite advection scheme with small implicit diffusion, Month. Weath. Rev., 111, 476–479, 1983.

Spiro, P. A., Jacob, D. J., and Logan, D. J.: Global inventory of sulfur emissions with 1$^\circ\times1^\circ$ resolution, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 6023–6036, 1992.

Stier, P., Feichter, J., Kinne, S., Kloster, S., Vignati, E., Wilson, J., Ganzeveld, L., Tegen, I., Werner, M., Balkanski, Y., Schultz, M., Boucher, O., Minikin, A., and Petzold, A.: The aerosol-climate model ECHAM5-HAM, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 1125–1156, 2005.

Stockwell, W. R., Middleton, P., Chang, J. S., and Tang, X.: The second generation regional acid deposition model: Chemical mechanism for regional air quality modeling, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 16 343–16 367, 1990.

Stoiber, R. E., Malinconico Jr., L. L., and Williams, S. N.: Use of the correlation spectrometer at volcanoes, in: Forecasting Volcanic Events, edited by: Tazieff, H. and Sabroux, J.-C., Elsevier, 1983.

Supardi, Subekty, A. D., and Neuzil, S. G.: General geology and peat resources of the Siak Kanan and Bengkalis Island peat deposits, Sumatra, Indonesia, in: Modern and Ancient Coal-Forming, edited by: Cobb, J. C. and Cecil, C. B., Environments, Boulder, CO, Geol. Soc. Am., Special Paper 286, 1993.

Symonds, R. B., Rose, W. I., Reed, M. H., Lichte, F. E., and Finnegan, D. L.: Volatilization, transport and sublimation of metallic and non-metallic elements in high temperature gases at Merapi Volcano, Indonesia, Geoch. Cosmoch. Acta, 51, 2083–2101, 1987.

Textor, C., Graf, H.-F., Herzog, M., and Oberhuber, J. M.: Injection of gases into the stratosphere by explosive volcanic eruptions, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D19), 4606, doi:10.1029/2002JD002987, 2003.

Thompson, A. and Bottrell, S.: Sulphur isotopic investigation of a polluted raised bog and the uptake of pollutant sulphur by \sl Sphagnum, Env. Pollution, 101, 201–207, 1998

Tiedtke, M.: A comprehensive mass flux scheme for cumulus parameterization in large-scale models, Month. Weath. Rev., 117, 1778–1800, 1989.

Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation of Indonesia, http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/mvo/mvomonitoring.html, 2005.

Walcek, C. J. and Taylor, G. R.: A theoretical method for computing vertical distributions of acidity and sulfate production within cumulus clouds, J. Atmos. Sci, 43, 339–355, 1986.

Weibring, P., Swartling, J., Ednre, H., Svanberg, S., Caltabiano, T., Condarelli, T., Cecchi, G., and Pantani, L.: Optical monitoring of volcanic sulphur dioxide emissions – comparison between four different remote-sensing spectroscopic techniques, Opt. Laser Eng., 37, 267–284, 2002.

Weiss, D., Shotyk, W., Cheburkin, A. K., Gloor, M., and Reese, S.: Atmospheric lead deposition from 12,400 to ca 2,000 yrs BP in a peat bog profile, Jura Mountains, Switzerland, Water Air Soil Poll., 100, 311–324, 1997.

Weiss, D., Shotyk, W., Rieley, J., Page, S., Gloor, M., Reese, S., and Martinez-Cortizas, A.: The geochemistry of major and selected trace elements in a forested peat bog, Kalimantan, SE Asia, and its implications for past atmospheric dust deposition, Geoch. Cosmoch. Acta, 66, 13, 2307–2323, 2002. \bibitem[Wesley(1989)] Wesley89 Wesley, M. L.: Parameterization of surface resistances to gaseous dry deposition in regional-scale numerical models, Atmos. Environ., 23, 1293–1304, 1989.

Wüst, R. A. J. and Bustin, R. M.: Low ash peat deposits from a dendritic, intermontane basin in the tropics: A new model for good quality coals, Int. J. Coal Geol., 46, 3-4, 179–206, 2001.

Young, S. R., Voight, B., and Duffell, H. J.: Magma extrusion dynamics revealed by high-frequency gas monitoring at Soufri\`ere Hills volcano, Montserrat, in: Volcanic Degassing, edited by: Oppenheimer, C., Pyle, D. M., and Barclay, J., London, Geol. Soc. Lon., Special Publication 213, 219–230, 2003.