Articles | Volume 13, issue 8
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-4111-2013
© Author(s) 2013. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-4111-2013
© Author(s) 2013. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Phenomenology of convection-parameterization closure
J.-I. Yano
GAME/CNRS, UMR3589, CNRS-INSU-Météo France, Toulouse, France
M. Bister
Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
For contribution to Sect. 2.
Ž. Fuchs
Physics Department, Faculty of Science, University of Split, Split, Croatia
L. Gerard
Royal Meteorological Institute of Belgium (Dept R&D), Brussels, Belgium
V. T. J. Phillips
School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
S. Barkidija
Physics Department, Faculty of Science, University of Split, Split, Croatia
J.-M. Piriou
GAME/CNRS, UMR3589, CNRS-INSU-Météo France, Toulouse, France
Related authors
Jun-Ichi Yano
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-287, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-287, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
A methodology for directly predicting the time evolution of the assumed parameters for the distribution densities based on the Liouville equation, as proposed earlier, is extended to multi–dimensional cases as well as when the systems are constrained by integrals over a part of the variable range. The extended methodology is tested against a convective energy cycle system as well as the Lorenz's stranger attractor.
Jun-Ichi Yano, Vince Larson, and Vaughan T. J. Phillips
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2278, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2278, 2024
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics (ACP).
Short summary
Short summary
The distribution problems appear in atmospheric sciences at almost every corner for describing diverse processes. This manuscript presents a general formulation for addressing all these problem.
Vaughan T. J. Phillips, Jun-Ichi Yano, Akash Deshmukh, and Deepak Waman
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 11941–11953, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-11941-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-11941-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
For decades, high concentrations of ice observed in precipitating mixed-phase clouds have created an enigma. Such concentrations are higher than can be explained by the action of aerosols or by the spontaneous freezing of most cloud droplets. The controversy has partly persisted due to the lack of laboratory experimentation in ice microphysics, especially regarding fragmentation of ice, a topic reviewed by a recent paper. Our comment attempts to clarify some issues with regards to that review.
Jun-Ichi Yano and Nils P. Wedi
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 4759–4778, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-4759-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-4759-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Sensitivities of forecasts of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) to various different configurations of the physics are examined with the global model of ECMWF's Integrated Forecasting System (IFS). The motivation for the study was to simulate the MJO as a nonlinear free wave. To emulate free dynamics in the IFS,
various momentum dissipation terms (
friction) as well as diabatic heating were selectively turned off over the tropics for the range of the latitudes from 20° S to 20° N.
J.-I. Yano
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 7019–7030, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-7019-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-7019-2014, 2014
Jun-Ichi Yano
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-287, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-287, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
A methodology for directly predicting the time evolution of the assumed parameters for the distribution densities based on the Liouville equation, as proposed earlier, is extended to multi–dimensional cases as well as when the systems are constrained by integrals over a part of the variable range. The extended methodology is tested against a convective energy cycle system as well as the Lorenz's stranger attractor.
Jun-Ichi Yano, Vince Larson, and Vaughan T. J. Phillips
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2278, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2278, 2024
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics (ACP).
Short summary
Short summary
The distribution problems appear in atmospheric sciences at almost every corner for describing diverse processes. This manuscript presents a general formulation for addressing all these problem.
Johannes Mikkola, Victoria A. Sinclair, Marja Bister, and Federico Bianchi
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 821–842, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-821-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-821-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Local winds in four valleys located in the Nepal Himalayas are studied by means of high-resolution meteorological modelling. Well-defined daytime up-valley winds are simulated in all of the valleys with some variation in the flow depth and strength among the valleys and their parts. Parts of the valleys with a steep valley floor inclination (2–5°) are associated with weaker and shallower daytime up-valley winds compared with the parts that have nearly flat valley floors (< 1°).
Meryl Wimmer, Gwendal Rivière, Philippe Arbogast, Jean-Marcel Piriou, Julien Delanoë, Carole Labadie, Quitterie Cazenave, and Jacques Pelon
Weather Clim. Dynam., 3, 863–882, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-3-863-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-3-863-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The effect of deep convection representation on the jet stream above the cold front of an extratropical cyclone is investigated in the global numerical weather prediction model ARPEGE. Two simulations using different deep convection schemes are compared with (re)analysis datasets and NAWDEX airborne observations. A deeper jet stream is observed with the less active scheme. The diabatic origin of this difference is interpreted by backward Lagrangian trajectories and potential vorticity budgets.
Gwendal Rivière, Meryl Wimmer, Philippe Arbogast, Jean-Marcel Piriou, Julien Delanoë, Carole Labadie, Quitterie Cazenave, and Jacques Pelon
Weather Clim. Dynam., 2, 1011–1031, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-2-1011-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-2-1011-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Inacurracies in representing processes occurring at spatial scales smaller than the grid scales of the weather forecast models are important sources of forecast errors. This is the case of deep convection representation in models with 10 km grid spacing. We performed simulations of a real extratropical cyclone using a model with different representations of deep convection. These forecasts lead to different behaviors in the ascending air masses of the cyclone and the jet stream aloft.
Vaughan T. J. Phillips, Jun-Ichi Yano, Akash Deshmukh, and Deepak Waman
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 11941–11953, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-11941-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-11941-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
For decades, high concentrations of ice observed in precipitating mixed-phase clouds have created an enigma. Such concentrations are higher than can be explained by the action of aerosols or by the spontaneous freezing of most cloud droplets. The controversy has partly persisted due to the lack of laboratory experimentation in ice microphysics, especially regarding fragmentation of ice, a topic reviewed by a recent paper. Our comment attempts to clarify some issues with regards to that review.
Jun-Ichi Yano and Nils P. Wedi
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 4759–4778, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-4759-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-4759-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Sensitivities of forecasts of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) to various different configurations of the physics are examined with the global model of ECMWF's Integrated Forecasting System (IFS). The motivation for the study was to simulate the MJO as a nonlinear free wave. To emulate free dynamics in the IFS,
various momentum dissipation terms (
friction) as well as diabatic heating were selectively turned off over the tropics for the range of the latitudes from 20° S to 20° N.
Janne Lampilahti, Hanna Elina Manninen, Katri Leino, Riikka Väänänen, Antti Manninen, Stephany Buenrostro Mazon, Tuomo Nieminen, Matti Leskinen, Joonas Enroth, Marja Bister, Sergej Zilitinkevich, Juha Kangasluoma, Heikki Järvinen, Veli-Matti Kerminen, Tuukka Petäjä, and Markku Kulmala
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 11841–11854, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-11841-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-11841-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
In this work, by using co-located airborne and ground-based measurements, we show that counter-rotating horizontal circulations in the planetary boundary layer (roll vortices) frequently enhance regional new particle formation or induce localized bursts of new particle formation. These observations can be explained by the ability of the rolls to efficiently lift low-volatile vapors emitted from the surface to the top of the boundary layer where new particle formation is more favorable.
Olivier Giot, Piet Termonia, Daan Degrauwe, Rozemien De Troch, Steven Caluwaerts, Geert Smet, Julie Berckmans, Alex Deckmyn, Lesley De Cruz, Pieter De Meutter, Annelies Duerinckx, Luc Gerard, Rafiq Hamdi, Joris Van den Bergh, Michiel Van Ginderachter, and Bert Van Schaeybroeck
Geosci. Model Dev., 9, 1143–1152, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-1143-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-1143-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
The Royal Meteorological Institute of Belgium and Ghent University have performed two simulations with different horizontal resolutions of the past observed climate of Europe for the period 1979–2010. Of special interest is the new way of handling convective precipitation in the model that was used. Results show that the model is capable of representing the European climate and comparison with other models reveals that precipitation patterns are well represented.
D. Barahona, A. Molod, J. Bacmeister, A. Nenes, A. Gettelman, H. Morrison, V. Phillips, and A. Eichmann
Geosci. Model Dev., 7, 1733–1766, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-7-1733-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-7-1733-2014, 2014
J.-I. Yano
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 7019–7030, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-7019-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-7019-2014, 2014
Related subject area
Subject: Clouds and Precipitation | Research Activity: Atmospheric Modelling and Data Analysis | Altitude Range: Troposphere | Science Focus: Physics (physical properties and processes)
Above-cloud concentrations of cloud condensation nuclei help to sustain some Arctic low-level clouds
Contrail formation on ambient aerosol particles for aircraft with hydrogen combustion: a box model trajectory study
Effects of intermittent aerosol forcing on the stratocumulus-to-cumulus transition
Cloud properties and their projected changes in CMIP models with low to high climate sensitivity
Water isotopic characterisation of the cloud–circulation coupling in the North Atlantic trades – Part 2: The imprint of the atmospheric circulation at different scales
Evaluating the Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen process in ICON in large-eddy mode with in situ observations from the CLOUDLAB project
Impact of urban land use on mean and heavy rainfall during the Indian summer monsoon
Distribution and morphology of non-persistent and persistent contrail formation areas in ERA5
Towards a more reliable forecast of ice supersaturation: concept of a one-moment ice-cloud scheme that avoids saturation adjustment
Opinion: Tropical cirrus – from micro-scale processes to climate-scale impacts
Variability of the properties of the distribution of the relative humidity with respect to ice: Implications for contrail formation
Developing a climatological simplification of aerosols to enter the cloud microphysics of a global climate model
Water isotopic characterisation of the cloud–circulation coupling in the North Atlantic trades – Part 1: A process-oriented evaluation of COSMOiso simulations with EUREC4A observations
Simulating the seeder-feeder impacts on cloud ice and precipitation over the Alps
Assimilation of 3D polarimetric microphysical retrievals in a convective-scale NWP system
Sensitivity of cloud-phase distribution to cloud microphysics and thermodynamics in simulated deep convective clouds and SEVIRI retrievals
Interactions between trade-wind clouds and local forcings over the Great Barrier Reef: A case study using convection-permitting simulations
Assessing the destructiveness of tropical cyclones induced by anthropogenic aerosols in an atmosphere–ocean coupled framework
Opinion: A critical evaluation of the evidence for aerosol invigoration of deep convection
Impact of ice multiplication on the cloud electrification of a cold-season thunderstorm: a numerical case study
Aerosol-Induced Closure of Marine Cloud Cells: Enhanced Effects in the Presence of Precipitation
Historical (1960–2014) lightning and LNOx trends and their controlling factors in a chemistry–climate model
The chance of freezing – a conceptional study to parameterize temperature-dependent freezing by including randomness of ice-nucleating particle concentrations
Evaluation of hygroscopic cloud seeding in warm-rain processes by a hybrid microphysics scheme using a Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model: a real case study
Effects of longwave radiative cooling on advection fog over the Northwest Pacific Ocean: Observations and large eddy simulations
Radiation fog properties in two consecutive events under polluted and clean conditions in the Yangtze River Delta, China: a simulation study
A bin microphysics parcel model investigation of secondary ice formation in an idealised shallow convective cloud
Influence of atmospheric rivers and associated weather systems on precipitation in the Arctic
Insights of warm-cloud biases in Community Atmospheric Model 5 and 6 from the single-column modeling framework and Aerosol and Cloud Experiments in the Eastern North Atlantic (ACE-ENA) observations
Interaction of microphysics and dynamics in a warm conveyor belt simulated with the ICOsahedral Nonhydrostatic (ICON) model
Does prognostic seeding along flight tracks produce the desired effects of cirrus cloud thinning?
Large-eddy simulation of a two-layer boundary-layer cloud system from the Arctic Ocean 2018 expedition
Opposing trends of cloud coverage over land and ocean under global warming
Aerosol–cloud–radiation interaction during Saharan dust episodes: the dusty cirrus puzzle
Aerosol–cloud impacts on aerosol detrainment and rainout in shallow maritime tropical clouds
Mixed-phase direct numerical simulation: ice growth in cloud-top generating cells
Aerosol impacts on the entrainment efficiency of Arctic mixed-phase convection in a simulated air mass over open water
Evaluating Arctic clouds modelled with the Unified Model and Integrated Forecasting System
Evaluation of aerosol–cloud interactions in E3SM using a Lagrangian framework
Cloud response to co-condensation of water and organic vapors over the boreal forest
Impact of formulations of the homogeneous nucleation rate on ice nucleation events in cirrus
Temperature and cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) sensitivity of orographic precipitation enhanced by a mixed-phase seeder–feeder mechanism: a case study for the 2015 Cumbria flood
Aerosol–precipitation elevation dependence over the central Himalayas using cloud-resolving WRF-Chem numerical modeling
Machine learning of cloud types in satellite observations and climate models
A modeling study of an extreme rainfall event along the northern coast of Taiwan on 2 June 2017
Long-term upper-troposphere climatology of potential contrail occurrence over the Paris area derived from radiosonde observations
Equilibrium climate sensitivity increases with aerosol concentration due to changes in precipitation efficiency
Southern Ocean cloud and shortwave radiation biases in a nudged climate model simulation: does the model ever get it right?
Aerosol characteristics and polarimetric signatures for a deep convective storm over the northwestern part of Europe – modeling and observations
Evaluation of tropical water vapour from CMIP6 global climate models using the ESA CCI Water Vapour climate data records
Lucas J. Sterzinger and Adele L. Igel
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 3529–3540, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-3529-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-3529-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Using idealized large eddy simulations, we find that clouds forming in the Arctic in environments with low concentrations of aerosol particles may be sustained by mixing in new particles through the cloud top. Observations show that higher concentrations of these particles regularly exist above cloud top in concentrations that are sufficient to promote this sustenance.
Andreas Bier, Simon Unterstrasser, Josef Zink, Dennis Hillenbrand, Tina Jurkat-Witschas, and Annemarie Lottermoser
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 2319–2344, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-2319-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-2319-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Using hydrogen as aviation fuel affects contrails' climate impact. We study contrail formation behind aircraft with H2 combustion. Due to the absence of soot emissions, contrail ice crystals are assumed to form only on ambient particles mixed into the plume. The ice crystal number, which strongly varies with temperature and aerosol number density, is decreased by more than 80 %–90 % compared to kerosene contrails. However H2 contrails can form at lower altitudes due to higher H2O emissions.
Prasanth Prabhakaran, Fabian Hoffmann, and Graham Feingold
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 1919–1937, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-1919-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-1919-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, we explore the impact of deliberate aerosol perturbation in the northeast Pacific region using large-eddy simulations. Our results show that cloud reflectivity is sensitive to the aerosol sprayer arrangement in the pristine system, whereas in the polluted system it is largely proportional to the total number of aerosol particles injected. These insights would aid in assessing the efficiency of various aerosol injection strategies for climate intervention applications.
Lisa Bock and Axel Lauer
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 1587–1605, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-1587-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-1587-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Climate model simulations still show a large range of effective climate sensitivity (ECS) with high uncertainties. An important contribution to ECS is cloud climate feedback. We investigate the representation of cloud physical and radiative properties from Coupled Model Intercomparison Project models grouped by ECS. We compare the simulated cloud properties of today’s climate from three ECS groups and quantify how the projected changes in cloud properties and cloud radiative effects differ.
Leonie Villiger and Franziska Aemisegger
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 957–976, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-957-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-957-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Three numerical simulations performed with an isotope-enabled weather forecast model are used to investigate the cloud–circulation coupling between shallow trade-wind cumulus clouds and atmospheric circulations on different scales. It is shown that stable water isotopes near cloud base in the tropics reflect (1) the diel cycle of the atmospheric circulation, which drives the formation and dissipation of clouds, and (2) changes in the large-scale circulation over the North Atlantic.
Nadja Omanovic, Sylvaine Ferrachat, Christopher Fuchs, Jan Henneberger, Anna J. Miller, Kevin Ohneiser, Fabiola Ramelli, Patric Seifert, Robert Spirig, Huiying Zhang, and Ulrike Lohmann
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-3029, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-3029, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We present simulations with a high-resolution numerical weather prediction model to study the growth of ice crystals in low clouds following glaciogenic seeding. We show that the simulated ice crystals grow slower than observed and do not consume as many cloud droplets as measured in the field. This may have implications for forecasting precipitation as the ice phase is crucial for precipitation in mid- and high latitudes.
Renaud Falga and Chien Wang
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 631–647, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-631-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-631-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The impact of urban land use on regional meteorology and rainfall during the Indian summer monsoon has been assessed in this study. Using a cloud-resolving model centered around Kolkata, we have shown that the urban heat island effect led to a rainfall enhancement via the amplification of convective activity, especially during the night. Furthermore, the results demonstrated that the kinetic effect of the city induced the initiation of a nighttime storm.
Kevin Wolf, Nicolas Bellouin, and Olivier Boucher
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-3086, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-3086, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The contrail formation potential and its tempo-spatial distribution are estimated for the North Atlantic flight corridor. Meteorological conditions of temperature and relative humidity are taken from the ERA5 re-analysis and IAGOS. Based on IAGOS flight tracks, crossing length, size, orientation, frequency of occurrence, and overlap of persistent contrail formation areas are determined. The presented conclusions might provide a guide for statistical flight track optimization to reduce contrails.
Dario Sperber and Klaus Gierens
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 15609–15627, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-15609-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-15609-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
A significant share of aviation's climate impact is due to persistent contrails. Avoiding their creation is a step toward sustainable air transportation. For this purpose, a reliable forecast of so-called ice-supersaturated regions is needed, which then allows one to plan aircraft routes without persistent contrails. Here, we propose a method that leads to the better prediction of ice-supersaturated regions.
Blaž Gasparini, Sylvia C. Sullivan, Adam B. Sokol, Bernd Kärcher, Eric Jensen, and Dennis L. Hartmann
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 15413–15444, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-15413-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-15413-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Tropical cirrus clouds are essential for climate, but our understanding of these clouds is limited due to their dependence on a wide range of small- and large-scale climate processes. In this opinion paper, we review recent advances in the study of tropical cirrus clouds, point out remaining open questions, and suggest ways to resolve them.
Sidiki Sanogo, Olivier Boucher, Nicolas Bellouin, Audran Borella, Kevin Wolf, and Susanne Rohs
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2601, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2601, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Relative humidity relative to ice (RHi) is a key variable in the formation of cirrus clouds and contrails. This study shows that the properties of the probability density function of RHi differ between the tropics and higher latitudes. In link with RHi and temperature variability, aircraft are likely to produce more contrails with bioethanol and hydrogen as fuel. The impact of this fuel change decreases with decreasing pressure levels, but increases from high latitudes to the tropics.
Ulrike Proske, Sylvaine Ferrachat, and Ulrike Lohmann
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2783, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2783, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Climate models include treatment of aerosol particles because these influence clouds and radiation. Over time their representation has grown increasingly detailed. This complexity may hinder our understanding of model behaviour. Thus here we simplify the aerosol representation of our climate model by prescribing a mean concentration, which saves runtime and helps to discover unexpected model behaviour. We conclude that simplifications provide a new perspective for model study and development.
Leonie Villiger, Marina Dütsch, Sandrine Bony, Marie Lothon, Stephan Pfahl, Heini Wernli, Pierre-Etienne Brilouet, Patrick Chazette, Pierre Coutris, Julien Delanoë, Cyrille Flamant, Alfons Schwarzenboeck, Martin Werner, and Franziska Aemisegger
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 14643–14672, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-14643-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-14643-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This study evaluates three numerical simulations performed with an isotope-enabled weather forecast model and investigates the coupling between shallow trade-wind cumulus clouds and atmospheric circulations on different scales. We show that the simulations reproduce key characteristics of shallow trade-wind clouds as observed during the field experiment EUREC4A and that the spatial distribution of stable-water-vapour isotopes is shaped by the overturning circulation associated with these clouds.
Zane Dedekind, Ulrike Proske, Sylvaine Ferrachat, Ulrike Lohmann, and David Neubauer
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-874, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-874, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Ice particles precipitating into lower clouds from an upper cloud, the seeder-feeder process, can enhance precipitation. A numerical modeling study conducted in the Swiss Alps found that 48 % of observed clouds were overlapping, in which the seeder-feeder process occurred 10 % of these clouds. Inhibiting the seeder-feeder process reduced the surface precipitation and ice particle growth rates, which were further reduced when additional ice multiplication processes were included in the model.
Lucas Reimann, Clemens Simmer, and Silke Trömel
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 14219–14237, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-14219-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-14219-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Polarimetric radar observations were assimilated for the first time in a convective-scale numerical weather prediction system in Germany and their impact on short-term precipitation forecasts was evaluated. The assimilation was performed using microphysical retrievals of liquid and ice water content and yielded slightly improved deterministic 9 h precipitation forecasts for three intense summer precipitation cases with respect to the assimilation of radar reflectivity alone.
Cunbo Han, Corinna Hoose, Martin Stengel, Quentin Coopman, and Andrew Barrett
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 14077–14095, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-14077-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-14077-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Cloud phase has been found to significantly impact cloud thermodynamics and Earth’s radiation budget, and various factors influence it. This study investigates the sensitivity of the cloud-phase distribution to the ice-nucleating particle concentration and thermodynamics. Multiple simulation experiments were performed using the ICON model at the convection-permitting resolution of 1.2 km. Simulation results were compared to two different retrieval products based on SEVIRI measurements.
Wenhui Zhao, Yi Huang, Steven Thomas Siems, Michael James Manton, and Daniel Patrick Harrison
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2633, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2633, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We studied how shallow clouds and rain behave over the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) using a detailed weather model. We found that the shape of the land, especially mountains, and particles in the air play big roles in influencing these clouds. Surprisingly, the sea's temperature had a smaller effect. Our research helps us understand the GBR's climate and how various factors can influence it, where the importance of the local cloud in thermal coral bleaching has recently been identified.
Yun Lin, Yuan Wang, Jen-Shan Hsieh, Jonathan H. Jiang, Qiong Su, Lijun Zhao, Michael Lavallee, and Renyi Zhang
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 13835–13852, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-13835-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-13835-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Tropical cyclones (TCs) can cause catastrophic damage to coastal regions. We used a numerical model that explicitly simulates aerosol–cloud interaction and atmosphere–ocean coupling. We show that aerosols and ocean coupling work together to make TC storms bigger but weaker. Moreover, TCs in polluted air have more rainfall and higher sea levels, leading to more severe storm surges and flooding. Our research highlights the roles of aerosols and ocean-coupling feedbacks in TC hazard assessment.
Adam C. Varble, Adele L. Igel, Hugh Morrison, Wojciech W. Grabowski, and Zachary J. Lebo
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 13791–13808, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-13791-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-13791-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
As atmospheric particles called aerosols increase in number, the number of droplets in clouds tends to increase, which has been theorized to increase storm intensity. We critically evaluate the evidence for this theory, showing that flaws and limitations of previous studies coupled with unaddressed cloud process complexities draw it into question. We provide recommendations for future observations and modeling to overcome current uncertainties.
Jing Yang, Shiye Huang, Qilin Zhang, Xiaoqin Jing, Yuting Deng, and Yubao Liu
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2188, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2188, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This study contributes to fill the dearth of understanding the impacts of different secondary ice production (SIP) processes on the cloud electrification in cold-season thunderstorm. The results suggest the SIP, especially the rime-splintering process and the shattering of freezing drops, have significant impacts on the charge structure of the storm. In addition, the modelled radar composite reflectivity and flash rate are improved after implementing the three SIP processes in the model.
Matthew W. Christensen, Peng Wu, Adam C. Varble, Heng Xiao, and Jerome D. Fast
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2416, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-2416, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Clouds are essential to keep Earth cooler by reflecting sunlight back to space. We show that an increase in aerosol concentration suppresses precipitation in clouds, causing them to accumulate water and expand in a polluted environment with stronger turbulence and radiative cooling. This process enhances their reflectance by 51 %. It’s therefore prudent to account for cloud fraction changes in assessments of aerosol-cloud interactions to improve predictions of climate change.
Yanfeng He and Kengo Sudo
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 13061–13085, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-13061-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-13061-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Lightning has big social impacts. Lightning-produced NOx (LNOx) plays a vital role in atmospheric chemistry and climate. Investigating past lightning and LNOx trends can provide essential indicators of all lightning-related phenomena. Simulations show almost flat global lightning and LNOx trends during 1960–2014. Past global warming enhances the trends positively, but increases in aerosol have the opposite effect. Moreover, global lightning decreased markedly after the Pinatubo eruption.
Hannah C. Frostenberg, André Welti, Mikael Luhr, Julien Savre, Erik S. Thomson, and Luisa Ickes
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 10883–10900, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-10883-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-10883-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Observations show that ice-nucleating particle concentrations (INPCs) have a large variety and follow lognormal distributions for a given temperature. We introduce a new immersion freezing parameterization that applies this lognormal behavior. INPCs are drawn randomly from a temperature-dependent lognormal distribution. We then show that the ice content of the modeled Arctic stratocumulus cloud is highly sensitive to the probability of drawing large INPCs.
Kai-I Lin, Kao-Shen Chung, Sheng-Hsiang Wang, Li-Hsin Chen, Yu-Chieng Liou, Pay-Liam Lin, Wei-Yu Chang, Hsien-Jung Chiu, and Yi-Hui Chang
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 10423–10438, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-10423-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-10423-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This study develops a hybrid microphysics scheme to enable the complex model simulation of cloud seeding based on observational cloud condensation nuclei size distribution. Our results show that more precipitation can be developed in the scenarios seeding in the in-cloud region, and seeding over an area of tens km2 is the most efficient strategy due to the strengthening of the accretion process. Moreover, particles bigger than 0.4 μm are the main factor contributing to cloud-seeding effects.
Liu Yang, Saisai Ding, Jing-Wu Liu, and Su-Ping Zhang
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-1494, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-1494, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Advection fog occurs when warm and moist air moves over a cold sea surface. In this situation, the temperature of the foggy air usually drops below the sea surface temperature (SST), particularly at night. High-resolution simulations show that the cooling effect of longwave radiation from the top of the fog layer permeates through the fog, resulting in a cooling of the surface air below SST. This study emphasizes the significance of monitoring air temperature to enhance sea fog forecasting.
Naifu Shao, Chunsong Lu, Xingcan Jia, Yuan Wang, Yubin Li, Yan Yin, Bin Zhu, Tianliang Zhao, Duanyang Liu, Shengjie Niu, Shuxian Fan, Shuqi Yan, and Jingjing Lv
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 9873–9890, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-9873-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-9873-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Fog is an important meteorological phenomenon that affects visibility. Aerosols and the planetary boundary layer (PBL) play critical roles in the fog life cycle. In this study, aerosol-induced changes in fog properties become more remarkable in the second fog (Fog2) than in the first fog (Fog1). The reason is that aerosol–cloud interaction (ACI) delays Fog1 dissipation, leading to the PBL meteorological conditions being more conducive to Fog2 formation and to stronger ACI in Fog2.
Rachel L. James, Jonathan Crosier, and Paul J. Connolly
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 9099–9121, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-9099-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-9099-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Secondary ice production (SIP) may significantly enhance the ice particle concentration in mixed-phase clouds. We present a systematic modelling study of secondary ice formation in idealised shallow convective clouds for various conditions. Our results suggest that the SIP mechanism of collisions of supercooled water drops with more massive ice particles may be a significant ice formation mechanism in shallow convective clouds outside the rime-splintering temperature range (−3 to −8 °C).
Melanie Lauer, Annette Rinke, Irina Gorodetskaya, Michael Sprenger, Mario Mech, and Susanne Crewell
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 8705–8726, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-8705-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-8705-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We present a new method to analyse the influence of atmospheric rivers (ARs), cyclones, and fronts on the precipitation in the Arctic, based on two campaigns: ACLOUD (early summer 2017) and AFLUX (early spring 2019). There are differences between both campaign periods: in early summer, the precipitation is mostly related to ARs and fronts, especially when they are co-located, while in early spring, cyclones isolated from ARs and fronts contributed most to the precipitation.
Yuan Wang, Xiaojian Zheng, Xiquan Dong, Baike Xi, and Yuk L. Yung
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 8591–8605, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-8591-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-8591-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Marine boundary layer clouds remain poorly predicted in global climate models due to multiple entangled uncertainty sources. This study uses the in situ observations from a recent field campaign to constrain and evaluate cloud physics in a simplified version of a climate model. Progress and remaining issues in the cloud physics parameterizations are identified. We systematically evaluate the impacts of large-scale forcing, microphysical scheme, and aerosol concentrations on the cloud property.
Annika Oertel, Annette K. Miltenberger, Christian M. Grams, and Corinna Hoose
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 8553–8581, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-8553-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-8553-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Warm conveyor belts (WCBs) are cloud- and precipitation-producing airstreams in extratropical cyclones that are important for the large-scale flow and cloud radiative forcing. We analyze cloud formation processes during WCB ascent in a two-moment microphysics scheme. Quantification of individual diabatic heating rates shows the importance of condensation, vapor deposition, rain evaporation, melting, and cloud-top radiative cooling for total heating and WCB-related potential vorticity structure.
Colin Tully, David Neubauer, Diego Villanueva, and Ulrike Lohmann
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 7673–7698, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-7673-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-7673-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This study details the first attempt with a GCM to simulate a fully prognostic aerosol species specifically for cirrus climate intervention. The new approach is in line with the real-world delivery mechanism via aircraft. However, to achieve an appreciable signal from seeding, smaller particles were needed, and their mass emissions needed to be scaled by at least a factor of 100. These biases contributed to either overseeding or small and insignificant effects in response to seeding cirrus.
Ines Bulatovic, Julien Savre, Michael Tjernström, Caroline Leck, and Annica M. L. Ekman
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 7033–7055, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-7033-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-7033-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We use numerical modeling with detailed cloud microphysics to investigate a low-altitude cloud system consisting of two cloud layers – a type of cloud situation which was commonly observed during the summer of 2018 in the central Arctic (north of 80° N). The model generally reproduces the observed cloud layers and the thermodynamic structure of the lower atmosphere well. The cloud system is maintained unless there are low aerosol number concentrations or high large-scale wind speeds.
Huan Liu, Ilan Koren, Orit Altaratz, and Mickaël D. Chekroun
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 6559–6569, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-6559-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-6559-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Clouds' responses to global warming contribute the largest uncertainty in climate prediction. Here, we analyze 42 years of global cloud cover in reanalysis data and show a decreasing trend over most continents and an increasing trend over the tropical and subtropical oceans. A reduction in near-surface relative humidity can explain the decreasing trend in cloud cover over land. Our results suggest potential stress on the terrestrial water cycle, associated with global warming.
Axel Seifert, Vanessa Bachmann, Florian Filipitsch, Jochen Förstner, Christian M. Grams, Gholam Ali Hoshyaripour, Julian Quinting, Anika Rohde, Heike Vogel, Annette Wagner, and Bernhard Vogel
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 6409–6430, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-6409-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-6409-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate how mineral dust can lead to the formation of cirrus clouds. Dusty cirrus clouds lead to a reduction in solar radiation at the surface and, hence, a reduced photovoltaic power generation. Current weather prediction systems are not able to predict this interaction between mineral dust and cirrus clouds. We have developed a new physical description of the formation of dusty cirrus clouds. Overall we can show a considerable improvement in the forecast quality of clouds and radiation.
Gabrielle R. Leung, Stephen M. Saleeby, G. Alexander Sokolowsky, Sean W. Freeman, and Susan C. van den Heever
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 5263–5278, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-5263-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-5263-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This study uses a suite of high-resolution simulations to explore how the concentration and type of aerosol particles impact shallow tropical clouds and the overall aerosol budget. Under more-polluted conditions, there are more aerosol particles present, but we also find that clouds are less able to remove those aerosol particles via rainout. Instead, those aerosol particles are more likely to be detrained aloft and remain in the atmosphere for further aerosol–cloud interactions.
Sisi Chen, Lulin Xue, Sarah Tessendorf, Kyoko Ikeda, Courtney Weeks, Roy Rasmussen, Melvin Kunkel, Derek Blestrud, Shaun Parkinson, Melinda Meadows, and Nick Dawson
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 5217–5231, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-5217-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-5217-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The possible mechanism of effective ice growth in the cloud-top generating cells in winter orographic clouds is explored using a newly developed ultra-high-resolution cloud microphysics model. Simulations demonstrate that a high availability of moisture and liquid water is critical for producing large ice particles. Fluctuations in temperature and moisture down to millimeter scales due to cloud turbulence can substantially affect the growth history of the individual cloud particles.
Jan Chylik, Dmitry Chechin, Regis Dupuy, Birte S. Kulla, Christof Lüpkes, Stephan Mertes, Mario Mech, and Roel A. J. Neggers
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 4903–4929, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-4903-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-4903-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Arctic low-level clouds play an important role in the ongoing warming of the Arctic. Unfortunately, these clouds are not properly represented in weather forecast and climate models. This study tries to cover this gap by focusing on clouds over open water during the spring, observed by research aircraft near Svalbard. The study combines the high-resolution model with sets of observational data. The results show the importance of processes that involve both ice and the liquid water in the clouds.
Gillian Young McCusker, Jutta Vüllers, Peggy Achtert, Paul Field, Jonathan J. Day, Richard Forbes, Ruth Price, Ewan O'Connor, Michael Tjernström, John Prytherch, Ryan Neely III, and Ian M. Brooks
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 4819–4847, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-4819-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-4819-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, we show that recent versions of two atmospheric models – the Unified Model and Integrated Forecasting System – overestimate Arctic cloud fraction within the lower troposphere by comparison with recent remote-sensing measurements made during the Arctic Ocean 2018 expedition. The overabundance of cloud is interlinked with the modelled thermodynamic structure, with strong negative temperature biases coincident with these overestimated cloud layers.
Matthew W. Christensen, Po-Lun Ma, Peng Wu, Adam C. Varble, Johannes Mülmenstädt, and Jerome D. Fast
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 2789–2812, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-2789-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-2789-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
An increase in aerosol concentration (tiny airborne particles) is shown to suppress rainfall and increase the abundance of droplets in clouds passing over Graciosa Island in the Azores. Cloud drops remain affected by aerosol for several days across thousands of kilometers in satellite data. Simulations from an Earth system model show good agreement, but differences in the amount of cloud water and its extent remain despite modifications to model parameters that control the warm-rain process.
Liine Heikkinen, Daniel G. Partridge, Wei Huang, Sara Blichner, Rahul Ranjan, Emanuele Tovazzi, Tuukka Petäjä, Claudia Mohr, and Ilona Riipinen
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-164, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-164, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The organic vapor condensation with water vapor (co-condensation) is modeled in this work over the boreal forest environment because the forest air is rich in naturally emitted organic vapors. The simulations show that the number of cloud droplets can enhance by 20 % if the co-condensation process is considered. The enhancements are particularly high if the air contains small, naturally produced particles. Such conditions are most frequently met in Spring in the boreal forest.
Peter Spichtinger, Patrik Marschalik, and Manuel Baumgartner
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 2035–2060, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-2035-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-2035-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate the impact of the homogeneous nucleation rate on nucleation events in cirrus. As long as the slope of the rate is represented sufficiently well, the resulting ice crystal number concentrations are not crucially affected. Even a change in the prefactor over orders of magnitude does not change the results. However, the maximum supersaturation during nucleation events shows strong changes. This quantity should be used for diagnostics instead of the popular nucleation threshold.
Julia Thomas, Andrew Barrett, and Corinna Hoose
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 1987–2002, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-1987-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-1987-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We study the sensitivity of rain formation processes during a heavy-rainfall event over mountains to changes in temperature and pollution. Total rainfall increases by 2 % K−1, and a 6 % K−1 increase is found at the highest altitudes, caused by a mixed-phase seeder–feeder mechanism (frozen cloud particles melt and grow further as they fall through a liquid cloud layer). In a cleaner atmosphere this process is enhanced. Thus the risk of severe rainfall in mountains may increase in the future.
Pramod Adhikari and John F. Mejia
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 1019–1042, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-1019-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-1019-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We used an atmospheric model to assess the impact of aerosols through radiation and cloud interaction on elevation-dependent precipitation and surface temperature over the central Himalayan region. Results showed contrasting altitudinal precipitation responses to the increased aerosol concentration, which can significantly impact the hydroclimate of the central Himalayas, increasing the risk for extreme events and influencing the regional supply of water resources.
Peter Kuma, Frida A.-M. Bender, Alex Schuddeboom, Adrian J. McDonald, and Øyvind Seland
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 523–549, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-523-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-523-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We present a machine learning method for determining cloud types in climate model output and satellite observations based on ground observations of cloud genera. We analyse cloud type biases and changes with temperature in climate models and show that the bias is anticorrelated with climate sensitivity. Models simulating decreasing stratiform and increasing cumuliform clouds with increased CO2 concentration tend to have higher climate sensitivity than models simulating the opposite tendencies.
Chung-Chieh Wang, Ting-Yu Yeh, Chih-Sheng Chang, Ming-Siang Li, Kazuhisa Tsuboki, and Ching-Hwang Liu
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 501–521, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-501-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-501-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The extreme rainfall event (645 mm in 24 h) at the northern coast of Taiwan on 2 June 2017 is studied using a cloud model. Two 1 km experiments with peak amounts of 541 and 400 mm are compared to isolate the reasons for such a difference. It is found that the frontal rainband remains fixed in location for a longer period in the former run due to a low disturbance that acts to focus the near-surface convergence. Therefore, the rainfall is more concentrated and there is a higher total amount.
Kevin Wolf, Nicolas Bellouin, and Olivier Boucher
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 287–309, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-287-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-287-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Recent studies estimate the radiative impact of contrails to be similar to or larger than that of emitted CO2; thus, contrail mitigation might be an opportunity to reduce the climate effects of aviation. A radiosonde data set is analyzed in terms of the vertical distribution of potential contrails, contrail mitigation by flight altitude changes, and linkages with the tropopause and jet stream. The effect of prospective jet engine developments and alternative fuels are estimated.
Guy Dagan
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 15767–15775, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-15767-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-15767-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Using idealized simulations we demonstrate that the equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS), i.e. the increase in surface temperature under equilibrium conditions due to doubling of the CO2 concentration, increases with the aerosol concentration. The ECS increase is explained by a faster increase in precipitation efficiency with warming under high aerosol concentrations, which more efficiently depletes the water from the cloud and thus is manifested as an increase in the cloud feedback parameter.
Sonya L. Fiddes, Alain Protat, Marc D. Mallet, Simon P. Alexander, and Matthew T. Woodhouse
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 14603–14630, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-14603-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-14603-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Climate models have difficulty simulating Southern Ocean clouds, impacting how much sunlight reaches the surface. We use machine learning to group different cloud types observed from satellites and simulated in a climate model. We find the model does a poor job of simulating the same cloud type as what the satellite shows and, even when it does, the cloud properties and amount of reflected sunlight are incorrect. We have a lot of work to do to model clouds correctly over the Southern Ocean.
Prabhakar Shrestha, Jana Mendrok, and Dominik Brunner
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 14095–14117, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-14095-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-14095-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The study extends the Terrestrial Systems Modeling Platform with gas-phase chemistry aerosol dynamics and a radar forward operator to enable detailed studies of aerosol–cloud–precipitation interactions. This is demonstrated using a case study of a deep convective storm, which showed that the strong updraft in the convective core of the storm produced aerosol-tower-like features, which affected the size of the hydrometeors and the simulated polarimetric features (e.g., ZDR and KDP columns).
Jia He, Helene Brogniez, and Laurence Picon
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 12591–12606, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-12591-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-12591-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
A 2003–2017 satellite-based atmospheric water vapour climate data record is used to assess climate models and reanalyses. The focus is on the tropical belt, whose regional variations in the hydrological cycle are related to the tropospheric overturning circulation. While there are similarities in the interannual variability, the major discrepancies can be explained by the presence of clouds, the representation of moisture fluxes at the surface and cloud processes in the models.
Cited articles
Arakawa, A.: Closure assumptions in the cumulus parameterization problem, in: The Representation of Cumulus Convection in Numerical Models, Meteor. Mono., No. 46, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 1–15, 1993.
Arakawa, A.: The cumulus parameterization problem: past, present, and future, J. Climate, 17, 2493–2525, 2004.
Arakawa, A. and Chen, J.-M.: Closure assumptions in the cumulus parameterization problem, in: Short- and Medium-Range Numerical Weather Prediction, Collection of Papers at the WMO/IUGG NWP Symposium, Tokyo, 4–8 August 1986, 107–131, 1986.
Arakawa, A. and Schubert, W. H.: Interaction of a cumulus cloud ensemble with the large-scale environment, pt. I, J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 674–701, 1974.
Back, L. E. and Bretherton, C. S.: Geographic variability in the export of moist static energy and vertical motion profiles in the Tropical Pacific, Geophy. Res. Lett., 33, L17810, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GL026672, 2006.
Barkidija, S. and Fuchs, {\v Z}.: Precipitation correlation between convective available potential energy, convective inhibition and saturation fraction in middle latitudes, Atmos. Res., 124, 170–180, 2013.
Bechtold, P., Bazile, E., Guichard, F., Mascart, P., and Richard, E.: A mass-flux convection scheme for regional and global models, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 127, 869–889, 2001.
Betts, A. K. and Silva Dias, M. F.: Unsaturated downdraft thermodynamics in cumulonimbus. J. Atmos. Sci., 36, 1979, 1061–1071, 1979.
Bister, M.: Cumulus Parameterisation in Regional Forecast Models: a Review, Hirlam Technical Report, No. 35, 1998.
Bretherton, C. S. and Wyant, M. C.: Moisture transport, lower stratospheric stability, and decoupling of cloud–topped boundary layers, J. Atmos. Sci., 54, 148–167, 1997.
Bretherton, C. S., McCaa, J. R., and Grenier, H.: A new parameterization for shallow cumulus convection and its application to marine subtropical cloud-topped boundary layers. Part I: Description and 1D results, Mon. Weather Rev., 132, 864–882, 2004.
Bretherton, C. S., Blossey, P. N., Khairoutdinov, M.: An energy-balance analysis of deep convective self-aggregation above uniform SST, J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 4273–4292, 2005.
Brown, R. G. and Zhang, C.: Variability of midtropospheric moisture and its effect on cloud–top height distribution during TOAG COARE, J. Atmos. Sci., 54, 2760–2774, 1997.
Chaboureau, J.-P., Guichard, F., Redelsperger, J.-L., and Lafore, J.–P.: The role of stability and moisture in the diurnal cycle of convection over land, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 130, 3105–3117, 2004.
Charney, J. G. and Eliassen, A.: On the growth of the hurricane depression, J. Atmos. Sci., 21, 68–75, 1964.
Cho, H.-R. and Kenkins, M. A.: The thermal structure of tropical easterly waves. J. Atmos. Sic., 44, 2531–2539, 1987.
Delayen, K. and Yano, J.-I.: Is asymptotic nondivergence of the large–scale tropical atmosphere consistent with equatorial wave theories?, Tellus, 61A 491–497, 2009.
Derbyshire, S. H., Beau, I., Bechtold, P., Grandpeix, J.-Y., Piriou, J.-M., Redelsperger, J.-L., and Soares, P. M. M.: Sensitivity of moist convection to environmental humidity, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 130, 3055–3079, 2004.
Derbyshire, S. H., Maidens, A. V., Milton, S. F., Stratton, R. A., and Miller, M. R.: Adaptive detrainment in a convective parameterization, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 137, 1856–1871, 2011.
de Rooy, W. C., Bechtold, P., Fr{ö}hlich, K., Hohenegger, C., Jonker, H., Mironov, D., Siebesma, A. P., Teixeira, J., Yano, J.-I.: Entrainment and detrainment in cumulus convection: an overview, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 139, 1–19, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.1959, 2013.
Donner, L. J.: A cumulus parameterization including mass fluxes, vertical momentum dynamics, and mesoscale effects, J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 889–906, 1993.
Donner, L. J. and Phillips, V. T.: Boundary layer control on convective available potential energy: implications for cumulus parameterization, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4701, https://doi.org/10.1029/2003JD003773, 2003.
Emanuel, K. A.: An air-sea interaction model of intraseasonal oscillations in the tropics, J. Atmos. Sci., 44, 2324–2340, 1987.
Emanuel, K. A.: Atmospheric Convection, Oxford University Press, 580 pp., 1994.
Emanuel, K. A. and Bister, M.: Moist convective velocity and buoyancy scales, J. Atmos. Sci., 53, 3276–3285, 1996.
Emanuel, K. A., Neelin, J. D., and Bretherton, C. S.: On large-scale circulation in convective atmospheres, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 120, 1111–1143, 1994.
Fuchs, {\v Z}.: Large-scale modes of the tropical atmosphere. Part II: analytical modeling of Kelvin waves using the CAPE closure, Geofizika, 24, 44–55, 2007.
Fuchs, {\v Z}. and Raymond, D. J.: Large-scale modes of a nonrotating atmosphere with water vapor and cloud-radiative feedbacks, J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 1669–1679, 2002.
Fuchs, {\v Z}. and Raymond, D. J.: Large-scale modes in a rotating atmosphere with radiative-convective instability and WISHE, J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 4084–4094, 2005.
Fuchs, {\v Z}. and Raymond, D. J.: A simple, vertically resolved model of tropical disturbances with a humidity closure, Tellus, 59A, 344–354, 2007.
Fuchs, {\v Z}., Gjorgjievska, S., and Raymond, D. J.: Effects of varying the shape of the convective heating profile on convectively coupled gravity waves and moisture modes. J. Atmos. Sci., 69, 2505–2519, 2012.
Gerard, L.: An integrated package for subgrid convection, clouds and precipitation compatible with the meso-gamma scales. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 133, 711–30, 2007;
Gerard, L. and Geleyn, J.-F.: Evolution of a subgrid deep convection parameterization in a limited-area model with increasing resolution, Quart. J. Roy.Meteor. Soc., 131, 2293–2312, 2005.
Gerard, L., Piriou, J.-M., Bro{\v z}ková, R., Geleyn, J.-F. and Banciu, D.: Cloud and precipitation parameterization in a meso-gamma-scale operational weather prediction model, Mon. Weather Rev., 137, 3960–3977, 2009.
Grandpeix, J.-Y. and Lafore, J.-P.: A Density Current Parameterization Coupled with Emanuel's Convection Scheme. Part I: The Models, J. Atmos. Sci., 67, 881–897, 2010.
Hayashi, Y.: A theory of large-scale equatorial waves generated by condensation heat and accelerating the zonal wind, J. Meteor. Soc. Jpn., 48, 140–160, 1970.
Hayashi, Y.: Large-scale equatorial waves destabilized by convective heating in the presence of surface friction, J. Meteor. Soc. Jpn., 49, 458–466, 1971.
Hohenegger, C. and Bretherton, C. S.: Simulating deep convection with a shallow convection scheme, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 10389–10406, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-10389-2011, 2011.
Hourdin, F, Grandpeix, J.-Y., Rio, C., Bony, S., Jam, A., Cheruy, F., Rochetin, N., Fairhead, L., Idelkadi, A., Musat, I., Dufresne, J.-L., Lefebvre, M.-P., Lahellec, A., and Roehrig, R.: From IPSL-CM5A to IPSL-CM5B: revisiting the parameterization of boundary-layer, clouds and convection in the LMDZ atmospheric model, Clim Dyn., https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-012-1343-y, 2012.
James, R. P. and Markowski, P. M.: A numerical investigation of the effects of dry air aloft on deep convection, Mon. Weather Rev., 138, 140–161, 2010.
Kain, J. S.: The Kain-Fritsch convective parameterization: an update, J. Appl. Meteor., 43, 170–181, 2004.
Khairoutdinov, M. and Randall, D.: High-resolution simulation of shallow-to-deep convection transition over land, J. Atmos. Sci., 63, 3421–3436, 2006.
Kiladis, G. N., Straub, K. H., and Haertel, P. T.: Zonal and vertical structure of the Madden-Julian oscillation, J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 2790–2809, 2005.
Kiladis, G. N., Wheeler, M. C., Haertel, P. T., Straub, K. H., and Roundy, P. E.: Convectively coupled equatorial waves, Rev. Geophy., 472, RG2003, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008RG000266, 2009.
Klemp, J. B.: Dynamics of tornadic thunderstorms, Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech., 19, 369–402, 1987.
Kuell, V., Gassmann, A., and Bott, A.: Towards a new hybrid cumulus parametrization scheme for use in non-hydrostatic weather prediction models, Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 133, 479–490, 2007.
Kuo, H. L.: Further studies of the parameterization of the influence of cumulus convection on large-scale flow, J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 1232–1240, 1974.
Lilly, D. K.: Model of cloud-topped mixed layers under a strong inversion, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 94, 292–309, 1968.
Lindzen, R.: Wave-CISK in the tropics, J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 156–179, 1974.
Lorenz, E. N.: Available energy and the maintenance of a moist circulation, Tellus, 30, 15–31, 1978.
Lorenz, E. N.: Numerical evaluation of moist available energy, Tellus, 31, 230–235, 1979.
Majda, A. J. and Shefter, M. G.: Models for stratiform instability and convectively coupled waves, J. Atmos. Sci., 58, 1567–1584, 2001.
Mapes, B. E.: Equilibrium vs. activation controls on large–scale variations of tropical deep convection, in: The Physics and Parameterization of Moist Atmospheric Convection, edited by: Smith, R. K., NATO ASI, Kloster Seeon, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 321–358, 1997.
Mapes, B. E.: The large-scale part of mesoscale convective system circulations: a linear vertical spectral band model, J. Meteor. Soc. Jpn., 76, 29–55, 1998.
Mapes, B. E.: Convective inhibition, subgrid-scale triggering energy, and stratiform instability in a toy tropical wave model, J. Atmos. Sci., 57, 1515–1535, 2000.
Mapes, B. E., Tulich, S., Lin, J.-L., and Zuidema, P.: The mesoscale convection life cycle: building block or prototype for large-scale tropical waves?, Dynam. Atmos. Oceans, 42, 3–29, 2006.
Mapes, B. E., Milliff, R., and Morzel, J.: Composite life cycle of maritime tropical mesoscale convective systems in scatterometer and microwave satellite observations, J. Atmos. Sci., 66, 199–208, 2009.
McBride, J. L. and Frank, W. M.: Relationships between stability and monsoon convection, J. Atmos. Sci., 56, 24–36, 1999.
Moncrieff, M. W.: A theory of organized steady convection and its transport properties, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 107, 29–50, 1981.
Moncrieff, M. W.: Organized convective systems: archetypal dynamical models, mass and momentum flux theory, and parametrization, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 118, 819–850, 1992.
Moncrieff, M. W. and Green, J. S. A.: The propagation and transfer properties of steady convective overturning in shear, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 98, 336–352, 1972.
Moncrieff, M. W. and Miller, M. J.: The dynamics and simulation of tropical cumulonimbus and squall lines, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 102, 373–394, 1976.
Neelin, J. D. and Held, I. M.: Modeling tropical convergence based on the moist static energy budget, Mon. Weather Rev., 115, 3–12, 1987.
Neelin, J. D. and Yu, J.-Y.: Modes of tropical variability under convective adjustment and the Madden–Julian oscillation. Part I: Analytical theory, J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 25–42, 1994.
Neelin, J. D., Held, I. M., and Cook, K. H.: Evaporation-wind feedback and low–frequency variability in the tropical atmosphere, J. Atmos. Sci., 44, 2341–2348, 1987.
Newell, R. E., Kidson, J. W., Vincent, D. G., and Boer, G. J.: The General Circulation of the Tropical Atmosphere, Vol. 2, The MIT Press, 1974.
Ooyama, K. V.: Conceptual evolution of the theory and modeling of the tropical cyclone, J. Meteor. Soc. Jpn., 60, 369–380, 1982.
Pan, D.-M. and Randall, D. A.: A cumulus parameterization with prognostic closure, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 124, 949–981, 1998.
Parodi, A. and Emanuel, K.: A theory for buoyancy and velocity scales in deep moist convection, J. Atmos. Sci., 66, 3449–3463, 2009.
Paulus, O.: Water vapor and mechanical work: A comparison of Carnot and stream cycles, J. Atmos. Sci., 68, 91–012, 2011.
Peters, O. and Neelin, D.: Critical phenomena in atmoshperic precipitation, Nat. Phys., 2, 393–396, https://doi.org/10.1038/Nphys314, 2006.
Randall, D. A. and Pan, D.-M.: Implementation of the Arakawa-Schubert cumulus parameterization with a prognostic closure, in: The Representation of Cumulus Convection in Numerical Models, Meteorological Monographs No. 46, edited by: Emanuel, K. A. and Raymond, D. J., Amer. Meteor. Soc., 137–144, 1993.
Randall, D. A. and Wang, J.: The moist available energy of a conditionally unstable atmosphere, J. Atmos. Sci., 49, 240–255, 1992.
Raymond, D. J.: Regulation of moist convection over the warm tropical oceans, J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 3945–3959, 1995.
Raymond, D. J.: Thermodynamic control of tropical rainfall, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 126, 889–898, 2000.
Raymond, D. J. and Fuchs, {\v Z}.: Convectively coupled gravity and moisture modes in a simple atmospheric model, Tellus, 59A 627–640, 2007.
Raymond, D. J. and Fuchs, {\v Z}.: Moisture modes and the Madden-Julian oscillation, J. Climate, 22, 3031–3046, 2009.
Raymond, D. J. and Herman, M. J.: Convective quasi-equilibrium reconsidered, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 3, 2011MS000079, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011MS000079, 2011.
Raymond, D. J., Raga, G. B., Bretherton, C. S., Molinari, J., L{ó}pez-Carrillo, C., and Fuchs, {\v Z}.: Convective forcing in the intertropical convergence zone of the Eastern Pacific, J. Atmos. Sci., 60, 2064–2082, 2003.
Raymond, D. J., Sessions, S. L., and Fuchs, {\v Z}.: A theory for the spinup of tropical depressions, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 133, 1743–1754, 2007.
Raymond, D. J., Sessions, S. L., Sobel, A. H., and Fuchs, {\v Z}.: The mechanism of gross moist stability, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 1, 9, https://doi.org/10.3894/JAMES.2009.1.9, 2010.
Ramage, C. S.: Monsoon Meteorology, Academic Press, New York, 296 pp., 1971.
Redelsperger, J.-L., Parsons, D. B., and Guichard, F.: Recovery processes and factors limiting cloud-top height following the arrival of a dry intrusion observed during TOGA-COARE, J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 2438–2457, 2002.
Reed, R. J., and Recker, E. E.: Structure and properties of synoptic–scale wave disturbances in the equatorial western Pacific, J. Atmos. Sci., 28, 1117–1133, 1971.
Reed, R. J., Norquiest, D. C., and Recker, E. E.: The structure and properties of African waves disturbances as observed during Phase III of GATE, Mon. Wea. Rec., 105, 317–333, 1977.
Renn{ó}, N. O. and Ingersoll, A. P.: Natural convection as a heat engine: a theory for CAPE, J. Atmos. Sci., 53, 572–585, 1996.
Rio, C., Hourdin, F., Grandpeix, J.-Y., and Lafore, J.-P.: Shifting the diurnal cycle of parameterized deep convection over land, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L07809, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL036779, 2009.
Rio, C., Hourdin, F., Grandpeix, J.-Y., Hourdin, H., Guichard, F., Couvreux, F., Lafore, J.-P., Fridlind, A., Mrowiec, A., Roehrig, R., Rochetin, N., Lefebvre, M.-P., and Idelkadi, A.: Control of deep convection by sub–cloud lifting processes: the ALP closure in the LMDD5B general circulation model, Clim. Dyn., https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-012-1506-x, 2012.
Rotunno, R., Klemp, J. B., and Weisman, M. L.: A theory for strong, long-lived squall lines, J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 463–485, 1988.
Schubert, W. H., Wakefield, J. S., Steiner, E. J., and Cos, S. K.: Marine stratocumulus convection, Part I: Governing equations and horizontally homogeneous solutions, J. Atmos. Sci., 36, 1286–1307, 1979.
Sherwood, S. C.: Convective precursors and predictability in the Tropical Western Pacific, Mon. Weather Rev., 127, 2977–2991, 1999.
Sherwood, S. C. and Wahrlich, R.: Observed evolution of tropical deep convection event and their environment, Mon. Weather Rev., 127, 1777–1795, 1999.
Shutts, G. J. and Gray, M. E. B.: Numerical simulations of convective equilibrium under prescribed forcing, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 125, 2767–2787, 1999.
Sobel, A. H., Nilsson, J., and Polvani, L. M.: The weak temperature gradient approximation and balanced tropical moisture waves, J. Atmos. Sci., 58, 3650–3665, 2001.
Sobel, A. H., Yuter, S. E., Bretherton, C. S., and Kiladis, G. N.: Large-scale meteorology of shallow cumulus convection, J. Atmos. Sci., 60, 1201–1219, 2004.
Stone, P. H. and Carlson, J. H.: Atmospheric lapse rate regimes and their parameterization, J. Atmos. Sci., 36, 415–423, 1979.
Stensrud, D. J.: Parameterization schemes, Cambridge University Press, 459 pp., 2007.
Sugiyama, M.: The moistue mode in the quasi–equilibrium tropical model. Part I: Analysis based on the weka tempeature gradient approximation, J. Atmos. Sic., 66, 1507–1523, 2009a.
Sugiyama, M.: The moistue mode in the quasi-equilibrium tropical model. Part II: Nonlinear behavior on an equatorial β-plane. J. Atmos. Sci., 66, 1525–1542, 2009b.
Thompson, R. M., Payne, S. W., Recker, E. E., and Reed, R. J.: Structure and properties of synoptic-scale wave disturbances in the intertropical convergence zone of the Eastern Atlantic, J. Atmos. Sci., 36, 53–72, 1979.
Thorpe, A. J., Miller, M. J., and Moncrieff, M. W.: Two-dimensional onvection in non-constant shear: a model of mid-latitude squall lines, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 108, 739–762, 1982.
Xu, K.-M.: A statistical analysis of the dependency of closure assumptions in cumulus parameterization on the horizontal resolution, J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 3674–3691, 1994.
Xu, K. M. and Randall, D. A.: Influence of large-scale advedctive cooling and moisture effects on the quasi-equilibrium behavior of explicitly simulated cumulus ensembles, J. Atmos. Sci., 55,, 896–909, 1998.
Wang, J. and Randall, D. A.: The moist available energy of a conditionally unstable atmosphere, Part II: Further analysis of GATE data, J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 703–710, 1994.
Wang, W. and Seaman, N. L.: A comparison study of convective parameterization schemes in a mesoscale model, Mon. Weather Rev., 125, 252–278, 1997.
Weisman, M. L. and Klemp, J. B.: The dependence of numerically simulated convective storms on vertical wind shear and buoyancy, Mon. Weather Rev., 110, 504–520, 1982.
Wu, C. M., Stevens, B., and Arakawa, A.: What controls the transition from shallow to deep convection?, J. Atmos. Sci., 66, 1793–1806, 2008.
Yano, J.-I.: The cumulus parameterization problem in the context of MJO simulations, Proceedings for the MJO workshop, ECMWF, 2–5 November 2003, 115–127, 2003.
Yano, J.-I.: Interactive comment on "Simulating deep convection with a shallow convection scheme" by Hohenegger, C., and Bretherton, C. S., On PBL–based closure, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 11, C2411–C2425, http://www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net/11/C2411/2011/, 2011.
Yano, J.-I.: Comments on "A Density Current Parameterization Coupled with Emanuel's Convection Scheme. Part I: The Models", J. Atmos. Sci., 69, 2083–2089, 2012a.
Yano, J.-I.: Mass-flux subgrid-scale parameterization in analogy with multi-component flows: a formulation towards scale independence, Geosci. Model Dev., 5, 1425–1440, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-5-1425-2012, 2012b.
Yano, J.-I. and Baizig, H.,: Single SCA-Plume Dynamics, Dyn. Atmos. Ocean., 58, 62–94, 2012.
Yano, J.-I. and Bonazzola, M.: Scale analysis for the large-scale tropical atmospheric dynamics, J. Atmos. Sci., 66, 159–172, 2009.
Yano, J. I. and Emanuel, K. A.: An improved model of the equatorial troposphere and its coupling with the stratosphere, J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 377–389, 1991.
Yano, J.-I. and Plant, R. S.: Convective quasi-equilibrium, Rev. Geophys., 50, RG4004, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011RG000378, 2012a.
Yano, J.-I. and Plant, R. S.: Finite departure from convective quasi-equilibrium: periodic cycle and discharge-recharge mechanism, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 138, 626–637, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.957, 2012b.
Yano, J.-I. and Plant, R. S.: Interactions between shallow and deep convection under a finite departure from convective quasi-equilibrium, J. Atmos. Sci., 69, 3463–3470, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-12-0108.1, 2012c.
Yano, J.-I., Moncrieff, M. W., and McWilliams, J. C.: Linear stability and single-column analyses of several cumulus parameterization categories in a shallow-water model, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 124, 983–1005, 1998.
Yano, J.-I., Grabowski, W. W., Roff, G. L., and Mapes, B. E.: Asymptotic approaches to convective quasi-equilibrium, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 126, 1861–1887, 2000.
Yano, J.-I., Blender, R., Zhang, C., and Fraedrich, K.: 1/f-noise and pulse-like events in the tropical atmospheric surface variabilities, Quator. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 300, 1697–1721, 2004.
Yano, J.-I., Redelsperger, J.-L., Guichard, F., and Bechtold, P.: Mode decomposition as a methodology for developing convective-scale representations in global models, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 131, 2313–2336, 2005a.
Yano, J.-I., Chaboureau, J.-P., and Guichard, F.: A generalization of CAPE into potential-energy convertibility, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 131, 861–875, 2005b.
Yano, J.-I., Mulet, S., and Bonazzola, M.: Large-scale tropical atmosphere: asymptotically non-divergent?, Tellus, 61A, 417–427, 2009.
Yano, J.-I., Liu, C., and Moncrieff, M. W.: Self-criticality and homeostasis in atmospheric convective organization, J. Atmos. Sci., 69, 3449–3462, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-12-069.1, 2012.
Zhang, G. J.: Convective quasi-equilibrium in midlatitude continental environment and its effect on convective parameterization, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4220, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JD001005, 2002.
Zhang, Y. and Klein, S. A.: Mechanism affecting the transition from shallow to deep convection over land: inferences form observations of the diurnal cycle collected at the ARM Southern Great Plains site, J. Atmos. Sci., 67, 2943–2959, 2010.
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint