ACP Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics ACP 1680-7324 Copernicus GmbH Göttingen, Germany 10.5194/acp-12-1397-2012 Evolution of trace gases and particles emitted by a chaparral fire in California Akagi S. K. 1 Craven J. S. 2 Taylor J. W. 3 McMeeking G. R. 3 7 Yokelson R. J. 1 Burling I. R. 1 Urbanski S. P. 4 Wold C. E. 4 Seinfeld J. H. 2 Coe H. 3 Alvarado M. J. 5 Weise D. R. 6 University of Montana, Department of Chemistry, Missoula, MT, USA California Institute of Technology, Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Pasadena, CA, USA University of Manchester, Centre for Atmospheric Science, Manchester, UK United States Forest Service, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT, USA Atmospheric and Environmental Research (AER), Lexington, MA, USA USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Forest Fire Laboratory, Riverside, CA, USA now at: Department of Atmospheric Science, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA 07 02 2012 12 3 1397 1421 This is an open-access article ditributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. This article is available from http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/12/1397/2012/acp-12-1397-2012.html The full text article is available as a PDF file from http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/12/1397/2012/acp-12-1397-2012.pdf

Biomass burning (BB) is a major global source of trace gases and particles. Accurately representing the production and evolution of these emissions is an important goal for atmospheric chemical transport models. We measured a suite of gases and aerosols emitted from an 81 hectare prescribed fire in chaparral fuels on the central coast of California, US on 17 November 2009. We also measured physical and chemical changes that occurred in the isolated downwind plume in the first ~4 h after emission. The measurements were carried out onboard a Twin Otter aircraft outfitted with an airborne Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (AFTIR), aerosol mass spectrometer (AMS), single particle soot photometer (SP2), nephelometer, LiCor CO<sub>2</sub> analyzer, a chemiluminescence ozone instrument, and a wing-mounted meteorological probe. Our measurements included: CO<sub>2</sub>; CO; NO<sub>x</sub>; NH<sub>3</sub>; non-methane organic compounds; organic aerosol (OA); inorganic aerosol (nitrate, ammonium, sulfate, and chloride); aerosol light scattering; refractory black carbon (rBC); and ambient temperature, relative humidity, barometric pressure, and three-dimensional wind velocity. The molar ratio of excess O<sub>3</sub> to excess CO in the plume (ΔO<sub>3</sub>/ΔCO) increased from −5.13 (±1.13) × 10<sup>−3</sup> to 10.2 (±2.16) × 10<sup>−2</sup> in ~4.5 h following smoke emission. Excess acetic and formic acid (normalized to excess CO) increased by factors of 1.73 ± 0.43 and 7.34 ± 3.03 (respectively) over the same time since emission. Based on the rapid decay of C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub> we infer an in-plume average OH concentration of 5.27 (±0.97) × 10<sup>6</sup> molec cm<sup>−3</sup>, consistent with previous studies showing elevated OH concentrations in biomass burning plumes. Ammonium, nitrate, and sulfate all increased over the course of 4 h. The observed ammonium increase was a factor of 3.90 ± 2.93 in about 4 h, but accounted for just ~36% of the gaseous ammonia lost on a molar basis. Some of the gas phase NH<sub>3</sub> loss may have been due to condensation on, or formation of, particles below the AMS detection range. NO<sub>x</sub> was converted to PAN and particle nitrate with PAN production being about two times greater than production of observable nitrate in the first ~4 h following emission. The excess aerosol light scattering in the plume (normalized to excess CO<sub>2</sub>) increased by a factor of 2.50 ± 0.74 over 4 h. The increase in light scattering was similar to that observed in an earlier study of a biomass burning plume in Mexico where significant secondary formation of OA closely tracked the increase in scattering. In the California plume, however, ΔOA/ΔCO<sub>2</sub> decreased sharply for the first hour and then increased slowly with a net decrease of ~20% over 4 h. The fraction of thickly coated rBC particles increased up to ~85% over the 4 h aging period. Decreasing OA accompanied by increased scattering/particle coating in initial aging may be due to a combination of particle coagulation and evaporation processes. Recondensation of species initially evaporated from the particles may have contributed to the subsequent slow rise in OA. We compare our results to observations from other plume aging studies and suggest that differences in environmental factors such as smoke concentration, oxidant concentration, actinic flux, and RH contribute significantly to the variation in plume evolution observations.

 References Akagi, S. K., Yokelson, R. J., Wiedinmyer, C., Alvarado, M. J., Reid, J. S., Karl, T., Crounse, J. D., and Wennberg, P. O.: Emission factors for open and domestic biomass burning for use in atmospheric models, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 4039–4072, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-4039-2011doi:10.5194/acp-11-4039-2011, 2011. Allan, J. D., Delia, A. E., Coe, H., Bower, K. N., Alfarra, M. R., Jimenez, J. L., Middlebrook, A. M., Drewnick, F., Onasch, T. B., Canagaratna, M. R., Jayne, J. T., and Worsnop, D. R.: A generalized method for the extraction of chemically resolved mass spectra from Aerodyne aerosol mass spectrometer data, J. Aerosol Sci., 35, 909–922, 2004. Alvarado, M. J. and Prinn, R. G.: Formation of ozone and growth of aerosols in young smoke plumes from biomass burning: 1. Lagrangian parcel studies, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D09306, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008JD011144doi:10.1029/2008JD011144, 2009. Alvarado, M. J., Logan, J. A., Mao, J., Apel, E., Riemer, D., Blake, D., Cohen, R. C., Min, K.-E., Perring, A. E., Browne, E. C., Wooldridge, P. J., Diskin, G. S., Sachse, G. W., Fuelberg, H., Sessions, W. R., Harrigan, D. L., Huey, G., Liao, J., Case-Hanks, A., Jimenez, J. L., Cubison, M. J., Vay, S. A., Weinheimer, A. J., Knapp, D. J., Montzka, D. D., Flocke, F. M., Pollack, I. B., Wennberg, P. O., Kurten, A., Crounse, J., Clair, J. M. St., Wisthaler, A., Mikoviny, T., Yantosca, R. M., Carouge, C. C., and Le Sager, P.: Nitrogen oxides and PAN in plumes from boreal fires during ARCTAS-B and their impact on ozone: an integrated analysis of aircraft and satellite observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 9739–9760, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-9739-2010doi:10.5194/acp-10-9739-2010, 2010. Asman, W. A. H., Sutton, M. A., and Schjorring, J. K.: Ammonia: emission, atmospheric transport and deposition, New Phytol., 139, 27–48, 1998. Bae, M.-S., Schwab, J. J., Zhang, Q., Hogrefe, O., Demerjian, K. L., Weimer, S., Rhoads, K., Orsini, D., Venkatachari, P., and Hopke, P. K.: Interference of organic signals in highly time resolved nitrate measurements by low mass resolution aerosol mass spectrometry, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D22305, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2007JD008614doi:10.1029/2007JD008614, 2007. Bertschi, I. T., Yokelson, R. J., Ward, D. E., Babbitt, R. E., Susott, R. A., Goode, J. G., and Hao, W. M.: Trace gas and particle emissions from fires in large diameter and belowground biomass fuels, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8472, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002100doi:10.1029/2002JD002100, 2003. Beswick, K. M., Gallagher, M. W., Webb, A. R., Norton, E. G., and Perry, F.: Application of the Aventech AIMMS20AQ airborne probe for turbulence measurements during the Convective Storm Initiation Project, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 5449–5463, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-5449-2008doi:10.5194/acp-8-5449-2008, 2008. Biswell, H.: Prescribed Burning in California Wildlands Vegetation Management, University of California Press, 1989. Bond, T. C., Streets, D. G., Yarber, K. F., Nelson, S. M., Woo, J.-H., and Klimont, Z.: A technology-based global inventory of black and organic carbon emissions from combustion, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D14203, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003JD003697doi:10.1029/2003JD003697, 2004. Burling, I. R., Yokelson, R. J., Griffith, D. W. T., Johnson, T. J., Veres, P., Roberts, J. M., Warneke, C., Urbanski, S. P., Reardon, J., Weise, D. R., Hao, W. M., and de Gouw, J.: Laboratory measurements of trace gas emissions from biomass burning of fuel types from the southeastern and southwestern United States, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 11115–11130, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-11115-2010doi:10.5194/acp-10-11115-2010, 2010. Burling, I. R., Yokelson, R. J., Akagi, S. K., Urbanski, S. P., Wold, C. E., Griffith, D. W. T., Johnson, T. J., Reardon, J., and Weise, D. R.: Airborne and ground-based measurements of the trace gases and particles emitted by prescribed fires in the United States, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 12197–12216, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-12197-2011doi:10.5194/acp-11-12197-2011, 2011. Byun, D. and Schere, K. L.: Review of the governing equations, computational algorithms, and other components of the Models-3 Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) modeling system, Appl. Mech. Rev., 59, 51–77, http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2128636doi:10.1115/1.2128636, 2006. Canagaratna, M. R., Jayne, J. T., Jimenez, J. L., Allan, J. D., Alfarra, M. R., Zhang, Q., Onasch, T. B., Drewnick, F., Coe, H., Middlebrook, A., Delia, A., Williams, L. R., Trimborn, A. M., Northway, M. J., DeCarlo, P. F., Kolb, C. E., Davidovits, P., and Worsnop, D. R.: Chemical and microphysical characterization of ambient aerosols with the Aerodyne aerosol mass spectrometer, edited by: Viggiano, A., Mass Spectrom. Rev., 26, 185–222, 2007. Capes, G., Murphy, J. G., Reeves, C. E., McQuaid, J. B., \mboxHamilton, J. F., Hopkins, J. R., Crosier, J., Williams, P. I., and Coe, H.: Secondary organic aerosol from biogenic VOCs over West Africa during AMMA, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 3841–3850, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-3841-2009doi:10.5194/acp-9-3841-2009, 2009. Carter, M. C. and Foster, C. D.: Prescribed burning and productivity in southern pine forests: a review, Forest Ecol. Manag., 191, 185–197, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2003.11.006doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2003.11.006, 2004. Chakrabarty, R. K., Moosmuller, H., Garro, M. A., Arnott, W. P., Walker, J., Susott, R. A., Babbitt, R. E., Wold, C. E., Lincoln, E. N., and Hao, W. M.: Emissions from the laboratory combustion of wildland fuels: Particle morphology and size, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D07204, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006659doi:10.1029/2005JD006659, 2006. Cofer III., W. R., Levine, J. S., Riggan, P. J., Sebacher, D. I., Winstead, E. L., Shaw Jr., E. F., Brass, J. A., and Ambrosia, V. G.: Trace gas emissions from a mid-latitude prescribe chaparral fire, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 1653–1658, 1988. Crutzen, P. J. and Andreae, M. O.: Biomass burning in the tropics: Impact on atmospheric chemistry and biogeochemical cycles, Science, 250, 1669–1678, 1990. Cubison, M. J., Ortega, A. M., Hayes, P. L., Farmer, D. K., Day, D., Lechner, M. J., Brune, W. H., Apel, E., Diskin, G. S., Fisher, J. A., Fuelberg, H. E., Hecobian, A., Knapp, D. J., Mikoviny, T., Riemer, D., Sachse, G. W., Sessions, W., Weber, R. J., Weinheimer, A. J., Wisthaler, A., and Jimenez, J. L.: Effects of aging on organic aerosol from open biomass burning smoke in aircraft and laboratory studies, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 12049–12064, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-12049-2011doi:10.5194/acp-11-12049-2011, 2011. De Gouw, J. and Jimenez, J. L.: Organic aerosols in the Earth's atmosphere, Environ. Sci. Technol., 43, 7614–7618, 2009. Dentener, F. J. and Crutzen, P. J.: A three-dimensional model of the global ammonia cycle, J. Atmos. Chem., 19, 331–369, 1994. Draxler, R. R. and Rolph, G. D.: HYSPLIT (HYbrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory) Model access via NOAA ARL READY Website: http://ready.arl.noaa.gov/HYSPLIT.php, last access: 4 August 2011, NOAA Air Resources Laboratory, Silver Spring, MD, 2010. Drewnick, F., Schwab, J. J., Hogrefe, O., Peters, S., Husain, L., Diamond, D., Weber, R., and Demerjian, K. L.: Intercomparison and evaluation of four semi-continuous PM$_2.5$ sulfate instruments, Atmos. Environ., 37, 3335–3350, 2003. Drewnick, F., Hings, S. S., DeCarlo, P., Jayne, J. T., Gonin, M., Fuhrer, K., Weimer, S., Jimenez, J. L., Demerjian, K. L., Borrmann, S., and Worsnop, D. R.: A new Time-of-Flight Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (TOF-AMS) – instrument description and first field deployment, Aerosol Sci. Tech., 39, 637–658, 2005. Ebeling, J. M. and Jenkins, B. M.: Physical and chemical properties of biomass fuels, T. ASAE, 28, 898–902, 1985. Fearnside, P. M., Leal Jr., N., and Fernandes, F. M.: Rainforest burning and the global carbon budget: biomass, combustion efficiency, and charcoal formation in the Brazilian Amazon, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 16733–16743, 1993. Ferek, R. J., Reid, J. S., Hobbs, P. V., Blake, D. R., and Liousse, C.: Emission factors of hydrocarbons, halocarbons, trace gases, and particles from biomass burning in Brazil, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 32107–32118, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/98JD00692doi:10.1029/98JD00692, 1998. Finlayson-Pitts, B. J. and Pitts Jr., J. N.: Chemistry of the Upper and Lower Atmosphere, Academic Press, San Diego, USA, 969 pp., 2000. Fishman, J., Wozniak, A. E., and Creilson, J. K.: Global distribution of tropospheric ozone from satellite measurements using the empirically corrected tropospheric ozone residual technique: Identification of the regional aspects of air pollution, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 893–907, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-3-893-2003doi:10.5194/acp-3-893-2003, 2003. Goode, J. G., Yokelson, R. J., Susott, R. A., and Ward, D. E.: Trace gas emissions from laboratory biomass fires measured by open-path Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy: Fires in grass and surface fuels, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 21237–21245, 1999. Grieshop, A. P., Logue, J. M., Donahue, N. M., and Robinson, A. L.: Laboratory investigation of photochemical oxidation of organic aerosol from wood fires 1: measurement and simulation of organic aerosol evolution, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 1263–1277, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-1263-2009doi:10.5194/acp-9-1263-2009, 2009 Griffith, D. W. T.: Synthetic calibration and quantitative analysis of gas-phase FTIR spectra, Appl. Spectrosc., 50, 59–70, 1996. Haines, T. K. and Cleaves, D. A.: The legal environment for forestry prescribed burning in the south: Regulatory programs and voluntary guidelines, South J. Appl. For., 23, 170–74, 1999. Hardy, C. C. and Teesdale, D. R.: Source characterization and control of smoke emissions from prescribed burning of California chaparral, CDF Contract No. 89CA96071, California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, Sacramento, CA, 1991. Hardy, C. C., Conard, S. G., Regelbrugge, J. C., and Teesdale, D. R.: Smoke emissions from prescribed burning of southern California chaparral, Res. Pap. PNW-RP-486, US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR, 1996. Hardy, C. C., Ottmar, R. D., Peterson, J. L., Core, J. E., and Seamon, P.: Smoke management guide for prescribed and wildland fire: 2001 edition, available at: http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/5388, last access: 4 August 2011, National Wildfire Coordination Group, Boise, ID, 2001. Heald, C. L., Jacob, D. J., Park, R. J., Russell, L. M., Huebert, B. J., Seinfeld, J. H., Liao, H., and Weber, R. J.: A large organic aerosol source in the free troposphere missing from current models, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L18809, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005GL023831doi:10.1029/2005GL023831, 2005. Hennigan, C. J., Bergin, M. H., Dibb, J. E., and Weber, R. J.: Enhanced secondary organic aerosol formation due to water uptake by fine particles, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L18801, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008GL035046doi:10.1029/2008GL035046, 2008. Hennigan, C. J., Miracolo, M. A., Engelhart, G. J., May, A. A., Presto, A. A., Lee, T., Sullivan, A. P., McMeeking, G. R., Coe, H., Wold, C. E., Hao, W.-M., Gilman, J. B., Kuster, W. C., de Gouw, J., Schichtel, B. A., J. L. Collett Jr., Kreidenweis, S. M., and Robinson, A. L.: Chemical and physical transformations of organic aerosol from the photo-oxidation of open biomass burning emissions in an environmental chamber, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 7669–7686, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-7669-2011doi:10.5194/acp-11-7669-2011, 2011. Heringa, M. F., DeCarlo, P. F., Chirico, R., Tritscher, T., Dommen, J., Weingartner, E., Richter, R., Wehrle, G., Prévôt, A. S. H., and Baltensperger, U.: Investigations of primary and secondary particulate matter of different wood combustion appliances with a high-resolution time-of-flight aerosol mass spectrometer, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 5945–5957, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-5945-2011doi:10.5194/acp-11-5945-2011, 2011. Hobbs, P. V., Reid, J. S., Herring, J. A., Nance, J. D. Weiss, R. E., Ross, J. L., Hegg, D. A., Ottmar, R. D., and Liousse, C.: Particle and trace-gas measurements in the smoke from prescribed burns of forest products in the Pacific northwest, in: Biomass Burning and Global Change, vol 2, edited by: Levine, J. S., MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 697–715, 1996. Hobbs, P. V., Sinha, P., Yokelson, R. J., Christian, T. J., Blake, D. R., Gao, S., Kirchstetter, T. W., Novakov, T., and Pilewskie, P.: Evolution of gases and particles from a savanna fire in South Africa, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8485, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002352doi:10.1029/2002JD002352, 2003. Hosseini, S., Li, Q., Cocker, D., Weise, D., Miller, A., Shrivastava, M., Miller, J. W., Mahalingam, S., Princevac, M., and Jung, H.: Particle size distributions from laboratory-scale biomass fires using fast response instruments, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 8065–8076, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-8065-2010doi:10.5194/acp-10-8065-2010, 2010. Huffman, J. A., Jayne, J. T., Drewnick, F., Aiken, A. C., Onasch, T., Worsnop, D. R., and Jimenez, J. L.: Design, modeling, optimization, and experimental tests of a particle beam width probe for the aerodyne aerosol mass spectrometer, Aerosol Sci. Technol., 39, 1143–1163, 2005. Huffman, J. A., Docherty, K. S., Aiken, A. C., Cubison, M. J., Ulbrich, I. M., DeCarlo, P. F., Sueper, D., Jayne, J. T., Worsnop, D. R., Ziemann, P. J., and Jimenez, J. L.: Chemically-resolved aerosol volatility measurements from two megacity field studies, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 7161–7182, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-7161-2009doi:10.5194/acp-9-7161-2009, 2009. Johnson, T. J., Masiello, T., and Sharpe, S. W.: The quantitative infrared and NIR spectrum of CH<sub>2</sub>I<sub>2</sub> vapor: vibrational assignments and potential for atmospheric monitoring, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 2581–2591, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-6-2581-2006doi:10.5194/acp-6-2581-2006, 2006. Johnson, T. J., Profeta, L. T. M., Sams, R. L., Griffith, D. W. T., and Yokelson, R. J.: An infrared spectral database for detection of gases emitted by biomass burning, Vib. Spectrosc., 53, 97–102, 2010. Karl, T. G., Christian, T. J., Yokelson, R. J., Artaxo, P., Hao, W. M., and Guenther, A.: The Tropical Forest and Fire Emissions Experiment: method evaluation of volatile organic compound emissions measured by PTR-MS, FTIR, and GC from tropical biomass burning, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 5883–5897, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-7-5883-2007doi:10.5194/acp-7-5883-2007, 2007. Kauffman, J. B.: Death rides the forest: perceptions of fire, land use, and ecological restoration of western forests, Conserv. Biol., 18, 878–882, 2004. Koch, D., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S. E., Easter, R. C., Ferrachat, S., Ghan, S. J., Hoose, C., Iversen, T., Kirkevåg, A., Kristjansson, J. E., Liu, X., Lohmann, U., Menon, S., Quaas, J., Schulz, M., Seland, Ø., Takemura, T., and Yan, N.: Soot microphysical effects on liquid clouds, a multi-model investigation, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 1051–1064, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-1051-2011doi:10.5194/acp-11-1051-2011, 2011. Kondo, Y., Matsui, H., Moteki, N., Sahu, L., Takegawa, N., Kajino, M., Zhao, Y., Cubison, M. J., Jimenez, J. L., Vay, S., Diskin, G. S., Anderson, B., Wisthaler, A., Mikoviny, T., Fuelberg, H. E., Blake, D. R., Huey, G., Weinheimer, A. J., Knapp, D. J., and Brune, W. H.: Emissions of black carbon, organic, and inorganic aerosols from biomass burning in North America and Asia in 2008, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D08204, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010JD015152doi:10.1029/2010JD015152, 2011. Lack, D. A. and Cappa, C. D.: Impact of brown and clear carbon on light absorption enhancement, single scatter albedo and absorption wavelength dependence of black carbon, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 4207–4220, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-4207-2010doi:10.5194/acp-10-4207-2010, 2010. Lee, S., Baumann, K., Schauer, J. J., Sheesley, R. J., Naeher, L. P., Meinardi, S., Blake, D. R., Edgerton, E. S., Russell, A. G., and Clements, M.: Gaseous and particulate emissions from prescribed burning in Georgia, Environ. Sci. Technol., 39, 9049–9056, 2005. Li, J., Posfai, M., Hobbs, P. V., and Buseck, P. R.: Individual aerosol particles from biomass burning in southern Africa: 2. Compositions and aging of inorganic particles, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8484, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002310doi:10.1029/2002JD002310, 2003. Lim, Y. B., Tan, Y., Perri, M. J., Seitzinger, S. P., and Turpin, B. J.: Aqueous chemistry and its role in secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 10521–10539, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-10521-2010doi:10.5194/acp-10-10521-2010, 2010. Mason, S. A., Field, R. J., Yokelson, R. J., Kochivar, M. A., and Tinsley, M. R.: Complex effects arising in smoke plume simulations due to inclusion of direct emissions of oxygenated organic species from biomass combustion, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 12527–12539, 2001. McMeeking, G. R., Kreidenweis, S. M., Lunden, M., Carrillo, J., Carrico, C. M., Lee, T., Herckes, P., Engling, G., Day, D. E., Hand, J., Brown, N., Malm, W. C., and Collett Jr., J. L.: Smoke-impacted regional haze in California during the summer of 2002, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 137, 25–42, 2006. McMeeking, G. R., Kreidenweis, S. M., Baker, S., Carrico, C. M., Chow, J. C., Collet Jr., J. L., Hao, W. M., Holden, A. S., Kirchstetter, T. W., Malm, W. C., Moosmüller, H., Sullivan, A. P., and Wold, C. E.: Emissions of trace gases and aerosols during the open combustion of biomass in the laboratory, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D19210, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009JD011836doi:10.1029/2009JD011836, 2009. McMeeking, G. R., Good, N., Petters, M. D., McFiggans, G., and Coe, H.: Influences on the fraction of hydrophobic and hydrophilic black carbon in the atmosphere, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 5099–5112, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-5099-2011doi:10.5194/acp-11-5099-2011, 2011a. McMeeking, G. R., Morgan, W. T., Flynn, M., Highwood, E. J., Turnbull, K., Haywood, J., and Coe, H.: Black carbon aerosol mixing state, organic aerosols and aerosol optical properties over the United Kingdom, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 9037–9052, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-9037-2011doi:10.5194/acp-11-9037-2011, 2011b. Moteki, N. and Kondo, Y.: Effects of mixing state of black carbon measurements by laser-induced incandescence, Aerosol Sci. Tech., 41, 398–417, 2007. Mühle, J., Lueker, T. J., Su, Y., Miller, B. R., Prather, K. A., and Weiss, R. F.: Trace gas and particulate emissions from the 2003 southern California wildfires, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D03307, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007350doi:10.1029/2006JD007350, 2007. Park, R. J., Jacob, D. J., and Logan, J. A.: Fire and biofuel contributions to annual mean aerosol concentrations in the United States, Atmos. Environ., 41, 7389–7400, 2007. Perri, M. J., Seitzinger, S., and Turpin, B. J.: Secondary organic aerosol production from aqueous photooxidation of glycolaldehyde: Laboratory experiments, Atmos. Environ., 43, 1487–1497, 2009. Petters, M. D., Carrico, C. M., Kreidenweis, S. M., Prenni, A. J., DeMott, P. J., Collett, J. L., and Moosmüller, H.: Cloud condensation nucleation activity of biomass burning aerosol, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D22205, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009jd012353doi:10.1029/2009jd012353, 2009. Pfister, G. G., Emmons, L. K., Hess, P. G., Honrath, R., \mboxLamarque, J.-F., Val Martin, M., Owen, R. C., Avery, M. A., Browell, E. V., Holloway, J. S., Nedelec, P., Purvis, R., Ryerson, T. B., Sachse, G. W., and Schlager, H.: Ozone production from the 2004 North American boreal fires, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D24S07, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007695doi:10.1029/2006JD007695, 2006. Phuleria, H. C., Sheesley, R. J., Schauer, J. J., Fine, P. M., and Sioutas, C.: Roadside measurements of size-segregated particulate organic compounds near gasoline and diesel-dominated freeways in Los Angeles, CA, Atmos. Environ., 41, 4653–4671, 2007. Posfai, M., Simonics, R., Li, J., Hobbs, P. V., and Buseck, P. R.: Individual aerosol particles from biomass burning in southern Africa: 1. Compositions and size distributions of carbonaceous particles, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8483, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002291doi:10.1029/2002JD002291, 2003. Radke, L. F., Lyons, J. H., Hobbs, P. V., Hegg, D. A., Sandberg, D. V., and Ward, D. E.: Airborne monitoring and smoke characterization of prescribed fires on forest lands in western Washington and Oregon, Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-251, Portland, OR, US, Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 1990. Radke, L. F., Hegg, D. A., Hobbs, P. V., Nance, J. D., Lyons, J. H., Laursen, K. K., Weiss, R. E., Riggan, P. J., and Ward, D. E.: Particulate and trace gas emissions from large biomass fires in North America, Global biomass burning – Atmospheric, climatic, and biospheric implications, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 209–224, 1991. Radlein, D., Piskorz, J., and Scott, D. S.: Fast pyrolysis of natural polysaccharides as a potential industrial process, J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis, 19, 41–63, 1991. Ramanathan, V. and Carmichael, G.: Global and regional climate changes due to black carbon, Nat. Geosci., 1, 221–227, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ngeo156doi:10.1038/ngeo156, 2008. Reid, J. S., Hobbs, P. V., Ferek, R. J. , Martins, J. V., Blake, D. R., Dunlap, M. R., and Liousse, C.: Physical, chemical, and radiative characteristics of the smoke dominated regional hazes over Brazil, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 32059–32080, 1998. Reid, J. S., Eck, T. F., Christopher, S. A., Koppmann, R., Dubovik, O., Eleuterio, D. P., Holben, B. N., Reid, E. A., and Zhang, J.: A review of biomass burning emissions part III: intensive optical properties of biomass burning particles, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 827–849, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-5-827-2005doi:10.5194/acp-5-827-2005, 2005a. Reid, J. S., Koppmann, R., Eck, T. F., and Eleuterio, D. P.: A review of biomass burning emissions part II: intensive physical properties of biomass burning particles, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 799–825, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-5-799-2005doi:10.5194/acp-5-799-2005, 2005b. Richards, G. N.: Glycolaldehyde from pyrolysis of cellulose, J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis, 10, 251–255, 1987. Robinson, A. L., Donahue, N. M., Shrivastava, M. K., Weitkamp, E. A., Sage, A. M., Grieshop, A. P., Lane, T. E., Pierce, J. R., and Pandis, S. N.: Rethinking organic aerosols: Semivolatile emissions and photochemical aging, Science, 315, 1259–1262, 2007. Rolph, G. D.: Real-time Environmental Applications and Display sYstem (READY) Website (http://ready.arl.noaa.gov, last access: 27 January 2012), NOAA Air Resources Laboratory, Silver Spring, MD, 2010. Rothman, L. S., Gordon, I. E., Barbe, A., Benner, D. C., Bernath, P. F., Birk, M., Boudon, V., Brown, L. R., Campargue, A., Champion, J. P., Chance, K., Coudert, L. H., Dana, V., Devi, V. M., Fally, S., Flaud, J. M., Gamache, R. R., Goldman, A., Jacquemart, D., Kleiner, I., Lacome, N., Lafferty, W. J., Mandin, J. Y., Massie, S. T., Mikhailenko, S. N., Miller, C. E., Moazzen-Ahmadi, N., Naumenko, O. V., Nikitin, A. V., Orphal, J., Perevalov, V. I., Perrin, A., Predoi-Cross, A., Rinsland, C. P., Rotger, M., Simecková, M., Smith, M. A. H., Sung, K., Tashkun, S. A., Tennyson, J., Toth, R. A., Vandaele, A. C., and Vander Auwera, J.: The HITRAN 2008 molecular spectroscopic database, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Ra., 110, 533–572, 2009. Sandberg, D. V., Ottmar, R. D., Peterson, J. L., and Core, J.: Wildland fire on ecosystems: effects of fire on air, Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 5, Ogden, UT, US, Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 2002. Sander, S. P., Finlayson-Pitts, B. J., Friedl, R. R., Golden, D. M., Huie, R. E., Keller-Rudek, H., Kolb, C. E., Kurylo, M. J., Molina, M. J., Moortgat, G. K., Orkin, V. L., Ravishankara, A. R., and Wine, P. W.: Chemical kinetics and photochemical data for use in atmospheric studies, Evaluation Number 15 (JPL Publication 06-2), Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA, 2006. Schwarz, J. P., Gao, R. S., Fahey, D. W., Thomson, D. S., Watts, L. A., Wilson, J. C., Reeves, J. M., Darbeheshti, M., Baumgardner, D. G., Kok, G. L., Chung, S. H., Schulz, M., Hendricks, J., Lauer, A., Karcher, B., Slowik, J. G., Rosenlof, K. H., Thompson, T. L., Langford, A. O., Loewenstein, M., and Aikin, K. C.: Single-particle measurements of midlatitude black carbon and light-scattering aerosols from the boundary layer to the lower stratosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D16207, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007076doi:10.1029/2006JD007076, 2006. Schwarz, J. P., Gao, R. S., Spackman, J. R., Watts, L. A., Thomson, D. S., Fahey, D. W., Ryerson, T. B., Peischl, J., Holloway, J. S., Trainer, M., Frost, G. J., Baynard, T., Lack, D. A., de Gouw, J. A., Warneke, C., and Del Negro, L. A.: Measurement of the mixing state, mass, and optical size of individual black carbon particles in urban and biomass burning emissions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L13810, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008GL033968doi:10.1029/2008GL033968, 2008. Seinfeld, J. H. and Pandis, S. N.: Atmospheric chemistry and physics: From air pollution to climate change, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., US, 2006. Semuniuk, T. A., Wise, M. E., Martin, S. T., Russell, L. M., and Buseck, P. R.: Hygroscopic behavior of aerosol particles from biomass fires using environmental transmission electron microscopy, J. Atmos. Chem., 56, 259–273, 2007. Sharpe, S. W., Johnson, T. J., Sams, R. L., Chu, P. M., Rhoderick, G. C., and Johnson, P. A.: Gas-phase databases for quantitative infrared spectroscopy, Appl. Spectrosc., 58, 1452–1461, 2004. Shiraiwa, M., Kondo, Y., Moteki, N., Takegawa, N., Miyazaki, Y., and Blake, D. R.: Evolution of mixing state of black carbon in polluted air from Tokyo, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L16803, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2007gl029819doi:10.1029/2007gl029819, 2007. Stephens, M., Turner, N., and Sandberg, J.: Particle identification by laser-induced incandescence in a solid-state laser cavity, Appl. Opt., 42, 3726–3736, 2003. Stephens, S. L., Martin, R. E., and Clinton, N. E.: Prehistoric fire area and emissions from California's forests, woodlands, shrublands, and grasslands, Forest Ecol. Manag., 251, 205–216, 2007. Sudo, K. and Akimoto, H.: Global source attribution of tropospheric ozone: Long-range transport from various source regions, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D12302, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007992doi:10.1029/2006JD007992, 2007. Susott, R. A., Olbu, G. J., Baker, S. P., Ward, D. E., Kauffman, J. B., and Shea, R. W.: Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and thermogravimetric analysis of tropical ecosystem biomass, in: Biomass Burning and Global Change, edited by: Levine, J. S., MIT Press, Cambridge, 350–360, 1996. Tabazadeh, A., Jacobson, M. Z., Singh, H. B., Toon, O. B., Lin, J. S., Chatfield, R. B., Thakur, A. N., Talbot, R. W., and Dibb, J. E.: Nitric acid scavenging by mineral and biomass burning aerosols, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 4185–4188, 1998. Tabazadeh, A., Yokelson, R. J., Singh, H. B., Hobbs, P. V., Crawford, J. H., and Iraci, L. T.: Heterogeneous chemistry involving methanol in tropospheric clouds, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L06114, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003GL018775doi:10.1029/2003GL018775, 2004. Tang, I. N. and Munkelwitz, H. R.: Composition and temperature dependence of the deliquescence properties of hygroscopic aerosols, Atmos. Environ., 27A, 467–473, 1993. Tang, I. N. and Munkelwitz, H. R.: Water activities, densities, and refractive indices of aqueous sulfates and sodium nitrate droplets of atmospheric importance, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 18801–18808, 1994a. Tang, I. N. and Munkelwitz, H. R.: Aerosol phase transformation and growth in the atmosphere, J. Appl. Meteorol., 33, 792–796, 1994b. Trent, A., Davies, M. A., Fisher, R., Thistle, H., and Babbitt, R.: Evaluation of optical instruments for real-time, continuous monitoring of smoke particulates, Tech. Rep. 0025 2860 MTDC, USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center, Missoula, MT, USA, 38 pp., 2000. Trentmann, J., Andreae, M. O., and Graf, H.-F.: Chemical processes in a young biomass-burning plume, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4705, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003JD003732doi:10.1029/2003JD003732, 2003. Trentmann, J., Yokelson, R. J., Hobbs, P. V., Winterrath, T., Christian, T. J., Andreae, M. O., and Mason, S. A.: An analysis of the chemical processes in the smoke plume from a savanna fire, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D12301, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004JD005628doi:10.1029/2004JD005628, 2005. Val Martin, M., Honrath, R. E., Owen, R. C., Pfister, G., Fialho, P., and Barata, F.: Significant enhancements of nitrogen oxides, black carbon, and ozone in the North Atlantic lower free troposphere resulting from North American boreal wildfires, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D23S60, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007530doi:10.1029/2006JD007530, 2006. van der Werf, G. R., Randerson, J. T., Giglio, L., Collatz, G. J., Mu, M., Kasibhatla, P. S., Morton, D. C., DeFries, R. S., Jin, Y., and van Leeuwen, T. T.: Global fire emissions and the contribution of deforestation, savanna, forest, agricultural, and peat fires (1997–2009), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 11707–11735, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-11707-2010doi:10.5194/acp-10-11707-2010, 2010. Veres, P., Roberts, J. M., Burling, I. R., Warneke, C., de Gouw, J., and Yokelson, R. J.: Measurements of gas-phase inorganic and organic acids from biomass fires by negative-ion proton-transfer chemical-ionization mass spectrometry, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D23302, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010JD014033doi:10.1029/2010JD014033, 2010. Ward, D. E., Peterson, J., and Hao, W. M.: An inventory of particulate matter and air toxic emissions from prescribed fires in the USA for 1989, Air and Waste Management Assoc. Annual Meeting, Denver, CO, 14–18 June 1993, 93-MP-6.04, 1993. Warneke, C., Bahreini, R., Brioude, J., Brock, C. A., de Gouw, J. A., Fahey, D. W., Froyd, K. D., Holloway, J. S., Middlebrook, A., Miller, L., Montzka, S., Murphy, D. M., Peischl, J., Ryerson, T. B., Schwarz, J. P., Spackman, J. R., and Veres, P.: Biomass burning in Siberia and Kazakhstan as an important source for haze over the Alaskan Arctic in April 2008, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L02813, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008GL036194doi:10.1029/2008GL036194, 2009. Warneke, C., Roberts, J. M., Veres, P., Gilman, J., Kuster, W. C., Burling, I., Yokelson, R. J., and de Gouw, J. A.: VOC identification and inter-comparison from laboratory biomass burning using PTR-MS and PIT-MS, Int. J. Mass Spectrom. Ion Proc., 303, 6–14, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijms.2010.12.002doi:10.1016/j.ijms.2010.12.002, 2011. Watson, J. G.: Visibility: Science and regulation, J. Air Waste Manage., 52, 628–713, 2002. Wiedinmyer, C. and Hurteau, M. D.: Prescribed fire as a means of reducing forest carbon emissions in the Western United States, Environ. Sci. Technol., 44, 1926–1932, 2010. Yoder, J., Tilley, M., Engle, D., and Fuhlendorf, D.: Economics and prescribed fire law in the United States, Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 25, 218–233, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9353.00055doi:10.1111/1467-9353.00055, 2003. Yokelson, R. J., Griffith, D. W. T., and Ward, D. E.: Open path Fourier transform infrared studies of large-scale laboratory biomass fires, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 21067–21080, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/96JD01800doi:10.1029/96JD01800, 1996. Yokelson, R. J., Ward, D. E., Susott, R. A., Reardon, J., and Griffith, D. W. T.: Emissions from smoldering combustion of biomass measured by open-path Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 18865–18877, 1997. Yokelson, R. J., Goode, J. G., Ward, D. E., Susott, R. A., Babbitt, R. E., Wade, D. D., Bertschi, I., Griffith, D. W. T., and Hao, W. M.: Emissions of formaldehyde, acetic acid, methanol, and other trace gases from biomass fires in North Carolina measured by airborne Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 30109–30126, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/1999JD900817doi:10.1029/1999JD900817, 1999. Yokelson, R. J., Bertschi, I. T., Christian, T. J., Hobbs, P. V., Ward, D. E., and Hao, W. M.: Trace gas measurements in nascent, aged, and cloud-processed smoke from African savanna fires by airborne Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (AFTIR), J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8478, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002322doi:10.1029/2002JD002322, 2003a. Yokelson, R. J., Christian, T. J., Bertschi, I. T., and Hao, W. M.: Evaluation of adsorption effects on measurements of ammonia, acetic acid, and methanol, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4649, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003JD003549doi:10.1029/2003JD003549, 2003b. Yokelson, R. J., Karl, T., Artaxo, P., Blake, D. R., Christian, T. J., Griffith, D. W. T., Guenther, A., and Hao, W. M.: The Tropical Forest and Fire Emissions Experiment: overview and airborne fire emission factor measurements, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 5175–5196, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-7-5175-2007doi:10.5194/acp-7-5175-2007, 2007a. Yokelson, R. J., Urbanski, S. P., Atlas, E. L., Toohey, D. W., Alvarado, E. C., Crounse, J. D., Wennberg, P. O., Fisher, M. E., Wold, C. E., Campos, T. L., Adachi, K., Buseck, P. R., and Hao, W. M.: Emissions from forest fires near Mexico City, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 5569–5584, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-7-5569-2007doi:10.5194/acp-7-5569-2007, 2007b. Yokelson, R. J., Crounse, J. D., DeCarlo, P. F., Karl, T., Urbanski, S., Atlas, E., Campos, T., Shinozuka, Y., Kapustin, V., Clarke, A. D., Weinheimer, A., Knapp, D. J., Montzka, D. D., Holloway, J., Weibring, P., Flocke, F., Zheng, W., Toohey, D., Wennberg, P. O., Wiedinmyer, C., Mauldin, L., Fried, A., Richter, D., Walega, J., Jimenez, J. L., Adachi, K., Buseck, P. R., Hall, S. R., and Shetter, R.: Emissions from biomass burning in the Yucatan, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 5785–5812, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-5785-2009doi:10.5194/acp-9-5785-2009, 2009. Zhang, R. Y., Khalizov, A. F., Pagels, J., Zhang, D., Xue, H., and McMurry, P. H.: Variability in morphology, hygroscopicity, and optical properties of soot aerosols during atmospheric processing, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 105, 10291–10296, 2008. Zhang, X., Hecobian, A., Zheng, M., Frank, N. H., and Weber, R. J.: Biomass burning impact on PM$_2.5$ over the southeastern US during 2007: integrating chemically speciated FRM filter measurements, MODIS fire counts and PMF analysis, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 6839–6853, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-6839-2010doi:10.5194/acp-10-6839-2010, 2010.