References

ACP

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

ACP

1680-7324

Copernicus GmbH

Göttingen, Germany

10.5194/acp-11-4391-2011

Distribution of hydrogen peroxide and formaldehyde over Central Europe during the HOOVER project

Klippel

¹ Fischer

¹ Bozem

¹ Lawrence

M. G.

¹ Butler

¹ Jöckel

¹ ⁴ Tost

¹ Martinez

¹ Harder

¹ Regelin

¹ Sander

¹ Schiller

C. L.

¹ ² Stickler

¹ ³ Lelieveld

Department of Atmospheric Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz, Germany

Department of Chemistry, York University, Toronto, Canada

now at: Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research and Institute for Geography, Univ. Bern, Switzerland

now at: Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt (DLR), Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre, Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany

11 05 2011

11 9 4391 4410

This is an open-access article ditributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

This article is available from http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/11/4391/2011/acp-11-4391-2011.html

The full text article is available as a PDF file from http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/11/4391/2011/acp-11-4391-2011.pdf

In this study we report measurements of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), methyl hydroperoxide* (MHP* as a proxy of MHP based on an unspecific measurement of total organic peroxides) and formaldehyde (HCHO) from the HOx OVer EuRope (HOOVER) project (HOx = OH+HO2). HOOVER included two airborne field campaigns, in October 2006 and July 2007. Measurement flights were conducted from the base of operation Hohn (Germany, 54° N, 9° E) towards the Mediterranean and to the subpolar regions over Norway. We find negative concentration gradients with increasing latitude throughout the troposphere for H2O2 and CH3OOH*. In contrast, observed HCHO is almost homogeneously distributed over central and northern Europe and is elevated over the Mediterranean. In general, the measured gradients tend to be steepest entering the Mediterranean region, where we also find the highest abundances of the 3 species. Mixing ratios of these tracers generally decrease with altitude. H2O2 and CH3OOH* show maxima above the boundary layer at 2–5 km, being more distinct over southern than over northern Europe. We also present a comparison of our data with simulations by two global 3-D-models, MATCH-MPIC and EMAC, and with the box model CAABA. The models realistically represent altitude and latitude gradients for both HCHO and hydroperoxides (ROOH). In contrast, the models have problems reproducing the absolute mixing ratios, in particular of H2O2. Large uncertainties about retention coefficients and cloud microphysical parameters suggest that cloud scavenging might be a large source of error for the simulation of H2O2. A sensitivity study with EMAC shows a strong influence of cloud and precipitation scavenging on the budget of H2O2 as simulations improve significantly with this effect switched off.

References 1

Arlander, D W., Brüning, D., Schmidt, U., and Ehhalt, D H.: The tropospheric distribution of formaldehyde during TROPOZ II, J. Atmos. Chem., 2, 251–268, 1995.

Atkinson, R.: Gas-phase tropospheric chemistry of organic compounds., Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, Monograph 2, 1–216, 1994.

Balasubramanian, R. and Husain, L.: Observations of gas-phase hydrogen peroxide at an elevated rural site in New York, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 21209–21220, 1997.

Barth, M. C., Skamarock, W., and Stuart, A.: Numerical simulations of the July 10, 1996, Stratospheric-Tropospheric Experiment: Radiation, Aerosols, and Ozone(STERAO)-Deep Convection experiment storm- Redistribution of soluble tracers, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 12381–12400, 2001a.

Barth, M C., Stuart, A L., and Skamarock, W C.: Numerical simulations of the July 10, 1996, Stratospheric-Tropospheric Experiment: Radiation, Aerosols, and Ozone (STERAO) – Deep Convection experiment storm: Redistribution of soluble tracers, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 12381–12400, 2001b.

Barth, M C., Sillman, S., Hudman, R., Jacobson, M Z., Kim, C.-H., Monod, A., and Liang, J.: Summary of the cloud chemistry modeling intercomparison: Photochemical box model simulation, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4214, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002673doi:10.1029/2002JD002673, 2003.

Barth, M C., Kim, S., Skamarock, W., Stuart, A., Pickering, K., and Ott, L.: Simulations of the redistribution of formaldehyde, formic acid, and peroxides in the 10 July 1996 Stratospheric-Tropospheric Experiment: Radiation, Aerosols, and Ozone deep convection storm, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 112, D13310, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006JD008046doi:10.1029/2006JD008046, 2007.

Calvert, J., Lazrus, A., Kok, G., Heikes, B G., Walega, J., Lind, J., and Cantrell, C.: Chemical mechanisms of acid generation in the troposphere, Nature, 317, 27–35, 1985.

Cantrell, C A., Mauldin, L., Zondlo, M., Eisele, F., Kosciuch, E., Shetter, R., Lefer, B., Hall, S., Campos, T., Ridley, B., Walega, J., Fried, A., Wert, B., Flocke, F., Weinheimer, A., Hannigan, J., Coffey, M., Atlas, E., Stephens, S., Heikes, B G., Snow, J., Blake, D., Blake, N., Katzenstein, A., Lopez, J., Browell, E V., Dibb, J., Scheuer, E., Seid, G., and Talbot, R.: Steady state free radical budgets and ozone photochemistry during TOPSE, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8361, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002198doi:10.1029/2002JD002198, 2003.

Chatfield, R B. and Crutzen, P J.: Sulfur dioxide in remote oceanic air: cloud transport of reactive precursors, J. Geophys. Res., 89, 7111–7132, 1984.

Clegg, S. and Abbatt, J.: Uptake of gas-phase SO 2 and H 2 O 2 by ice surfaces: dependence on partial pressure, temperature, and surface acidity, J. Phys. Chem. A, 105, 6630–6636, 2001.

Colomb, A., Williams, J., Crowley, J., Gros, V., Hofmann, R., Salisbury, G., Klupfel, T., Kormann, R., Stickler, A., Forster, C., and Lelieveld, J.: Airborne measurements of trace organic species in the upper troposphere over Europe: the impact of deep convection, Environ. Chem., 3, 244–259, 2006.

Conklin, M H., Sigg, A., Neftel, A., and Bales, R C.: Atmosphere-snow transfer function for H2O2: Microphysical considerations, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 18367–18376, 1993.

Crutzen, P J. and Lawrence, M G.: The impact of precipitation scavenging on the transport of trace gases: a 3-dimensional model sensitivity study, J. Atmos. Chem., 37, 81–112, 2000.

Crutzen, P J., Lawrence, M., and Pöschl, U.: On the background photochemistry of tropospheric ozone, Tellus A, 51, 123–146, 1999.

Daum, P H., Kleinman, L I., Hills, A J., Lazrus, A L., Leslie, A. C D., Busness, K., and Boatman, J.: Measurement and interpretation of concentrations of H2O2 and related species in the upper midwest during summer, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 9857–9871, 1990.

Dickerson, R R., Huffman, G J., Luke, W T., Nunnermacker, L J., Pickering, K E., Leslie, A. C D., Lindsey, C G., Slinn, W. G N., Kelly, T J., Daum, P H., Delany, A C., Greenberg, J P., Zimmerman, P R., Boatman, J F., Ray, J D., and Stedman, D H.: Thunderstorms: An important mechanism in the transport of air pollutants, Science, 235, 460–465, 1987.

Dufour, G., Szopa, S., Barkley, M. P., Boone, C. D., Perrin, A., Palmer, P. I., and Bernath, P. F.: Global upper-tropospheric formaldehyde: seasonal cycles observed by the ACE-FTS satellite instrument, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 3893–3910, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-3893-2009doi:10.5194/acp-9-3893-2009, 2009.

Faloona, I., Tan, D., Brune, W., Jaeglé, L., Jacob, D., Kondo, Y., Koike, M., Chatfield, R., Pueschel, R., Ferry, G., Sachse, G., Vay, S., Anderson, B., Hannon, J., and Fuelberg, H.: Observations of HOx and its relationship with NOx in the upper troposphere during SONEX, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 3771–3783, 2000.

Fried, A., Lee, Y., Frost, G., Wert, B., Henry, B., Drummond, J., Hubler, G., and Jobson,T.: Airborne CH2O measurements over the North Atlantic during the 1997 NARE campaign: instrument comparisons and distributions, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 107(D4), 4039, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2000JD000260doi:10.1029/2000JD000260, 2002.

Fried, A., Crawford, J., Olson, J., Walega, J., Potter, W., Wert, B., Jordan, C., Anderson, B., Shetter, R., Lefer, B., Blake, D., Blake, N., Meinardi, S., Heikes, B G., OSullivan, D., Snow, J., Fuelberg, H., Kiley, C M., Sandholm, S., Tan, D., Sachse, G., Singh, H., Faloona, I., Harward, C N., and Carmichael, G R.: Airborne tunable diode laser measurements of formaldehyde during TRACE-P: Distributions and box model comparisons, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8798, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003JD003451doi:10.1029/2003JD003451, 2003a.

Fried, A., Wang, Y., Cantrell, C., Wert, B., Walega, J., Ridley, B., Atlas, E., Shetter, R., Lefer, B., Coffey, M T., Hannigan, J., Blake, B., Blake, N., Meinardi, S., Talbot, B., Dibb, J., Scheuer, E., Wingenter, O., Snow, J., Heikes, B G., and Ehhalt, D.: Tunable diode laser measurements of formaldehyde during the TOPSE 2000 study: Distributions, trends, and model comparisons, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8365, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002208doi:10.1029/2002JD002208, 2003b.

Hales, J. and Dana, M.: Precipitation scavenging of urban pollutants by convective storm systems, J. Appl. Meteorol., 18, 294–316, 1979.

Hall, B. and Claiborn, C.: Measurements of the dry deposition of peroxides to a Canadian boreal forest, J. Geophys. Res, 102, 29343–29353, 1997.

Hall, B., Claiborn, C., and Baldocchi, D.: Measurement and modeling of the dry deposition of peroxides, Atmos. Environ., 33, 577–589, 1999.

Heikes, B G.: Formaldehyde and hydroperoxides at Mauna Loa Observatory, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 18001–18013, 1992.

Heikes, B G., Kok, G L., Walega, J G., and Lazrus, A L.: H2O2, O3 and SO2 measurements in the lower troposphere over the eastern United States during fall, J. Geophys. Res., 92, 915–931, 1987.

Heikes, B G., Lee, M., Jacob, D., Talbot, R., Bradshaw, J., Singh, H., Blake, D., Anderson, B., Fuelberg, H., and Thompson, A M.: Ozone, hydroperoxides, oxides of nitrogen, and hydrocarbon budgets in the marine boundary layer over the South Atlantic, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 24221–24234, 1996a.

Heikes, B G., Lee, M., Bradshaw, J., Sandholm, S., Davis, D D., Crawford, J., Rodriguez, J., Liu, S., McKeen, S., Thornton, D., Bandy, A., Gregory, G., Talbot, R., and Blake, D.: Hydrogen peroxide and methylhydroperoxide distributions related to ozone and odd hydrogen over the North Pacific in the fall of 1991, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 1891–1905, 1996b.

Heikes, B G., Snow, J., Egli, P., OSullivan, D., Crawford, J., Olson, J., Chen, G., Davis, D., Blake, N., and Blake, D.: Formaldehyde over the central Pacific during PEM-Tropics B, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 14741–14755, 2001.

Hua, W., Chen, Z. M., Jie, C. Y., Kondo, Y., Hofzumahaus, A., Takegawa, N., Chang, C. C., Lu, K. D., Miyazaki, Y., Kita, K., Wang, H. L., Zhang, Y. H., and Hu, M.: Atmospheric hydrogen peroxide and organic hydroperoxides during PRIDE-PRD'06, China: their concentration, formation mechanism and contribution to secondary aerosols, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 6755–6773, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-6755-2008doi:10.5194/acp-8-6755-2008, 2008.

Iribarne, J V. and Pyshnov, T.: The effect of freezing on the composition of cloud droplets – I. Retention of HCl, HNO3, NH3, and H2O2, Atmos. Environ., 24A, 383–387, 1990.

Isaac, G. and Joe, P.: The vertical transport and redistribution of pollutants by clouds, The Meteoroloy of Acid Deposition, Air Pollution Control Association, Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 496–512, 1983.

Jackson, A V. and Hewitt, C N.: Hydrogen peroxide and organic hydroperoxide concentrations in a Eucalyptus forest in central Portugal, Atmos. Environ., 30, 819–830, 1996.

Jacob, P. and Klockow, D.: Hydrogen peroxide measurements in the marine atmosphere, J. Atmos. Chem., 15, 353–360, 1992.

Jaeglé, L., Jacob, D J., Wennberg, P O., Spivakovsky, C M., Hanisco, T F., Lanzendorf, E J., Hintsa, E J., Fahey, D W., Keim, E R., Proffitt, M H., Atlas, E L., Flocke, F., Schauffler, S., McElroy, C T., Midwinter, C., Pfister, L., and Wilson, J C.: Observed OH and HO2 in the upper troposphere suggest a major source from convective injection of peroxides, Geophys. Res. Let., 24, 3181–3184, 1997.

Jaeglé, L., Jacob, D J., Brune, W H., Faloona, I., Tan, D., Heikes, B G., Kondo, Y., Sachse, G W., Anderson, B., Gregory, G L., Singh, H B., Pueschel, R., Ferry, G., Blake, D R., and Shetter, R E.: Photochemistry of HO$_x$ in the upper troposphere at northern midlatitudes, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 3877–3892, 2000.

Jöckel, P., Sander, R., Kerkweg, A., Tost, H., and Lelieveld, J.: Technical Note: The Modular Earth Submodel System (MESSy) – a new approach towards Earth System Modeling, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 433–444, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-5-433-2005doi:10.5194/acp-5-433-2005, 2005.

Jöckel, P., Tost, H., Pozzer, A., Brühl, C., Buchholz, J., Ganzeveld, L., Hoor, P., Kerkweg, A., Lawrence, M. G., Sander, R., Steil, B., Stiller, G., Tanarhte, M., Taraborrelli, D., van Aardenne, J., and Lelieveld, J.: The atmospheric chemistry general circulation model ECHAM5/MESSy1: consistent simulation of ozone from the surface to the mesosphere, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 5067–5104, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-6-5067-2006doi:10.5194/acp-6-5067-2006, 2006.

Jöckel, P., Kerkweg, A., Pozzer, A., Sander, R., Tost, H., Riede, H., Baumgaertner, A., Gromov, S., and Kern, B.: Development cycle 2 of the Modular Earth Submodel System (MESSy2), Geosci. Model Dev., 3, 717–752, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gmd-3-717-2010doi:10.5194/gmd-3-717-2010, 2010.

Kerkweg, A., Buchholz, J., Ganzeveld, L., Pozzer, A., Tost, H., and Jöckel, P.: Technical Note: An implementation of the dry removal processes DRY DEPosition and SEDImentation in the Modular Earth Submodel System (MESSy), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 4617–4632, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-6-4617-2006doi:10.5194/acp-6-4617-2006, 2006a.

Kerkweg, A., Sander, R., Tost, H., and Jöckel, P.: Technical note: Implementation of prescribed (OFFLEM), calculated (ONLEM), and pseudo-emissions (TNUDGE) of chemical species in the Modular Earth Submodel System (MESSy), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 3603–3609, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-6-3603-2006doi:10.5194/acp-6-3603-2006, 2006b.

Kim, C.-H., Kreidenweis, S M., Feingold, G., Frost, G J., and Trainer, M K.: Modeling cloud effects on hydrogen peroxide and methylhydroperoxide in the marine atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4018, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2000JD000285doi:10.1029/2000JD000285, 2002.

Kleinman, L I.: Photochemical formation of peroxides in the boundary layer, J. Geophys. Res., 91, 10889–10904, 1986.

Kormann, R., Fischer, H., de Reus, M., Lawrence, M., Brühl, Ch., von Kuhlmann, R., Holzinger, R., Williams, J., Lelieveld, J., Warneke, C., de Gouw, J., Heland, J., Ziereis, H., and Schlager, H.: Formaldehyde over the eastern Mediterranean during MINOS: Comparison of airborne in-situ measurements with 3D-model results, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 851–861, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-3-851-2003doi:10.5194/acp-3-851-2003, 2003.

Kunen, S., Lazrus, A., Kok, G., and Heikes, B G.: Aqueous oxidation of SO2 by hydrogen peroxide, J. Geophys. Res., 88, 3671–3674, 1983.

Lawrence, M. G. and Crutzen, P.: The impact of cloud particle gravitational settling on soluble trace gas distributions, Tellus B, 50, 263–289, 1998.

Lawrence, M. G., Rasch, P. J., von Kuhlmann, R., Williams, J., Fischer, H., de Reus, M., Lelieveld, J., Crutzen, P. J., Schultz, M., Stier, P., Huntrieser, H., Heland, J., Stohl, A., Forster, C., Elbern, H., Jakobs, H., and Dickerson, R. R.: Global chemical weather forecasts for field campaign planning: predictions and observations of large-scale features during MINOS, CONTRACE, and INDOEX, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 267–289, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-3-267-2003doi:10.5194/acp-3-267-2003, 2003.

Lazrus, A L., Kok, G L., Gitlin, S N., and Lind, J A.: Automated fluorometric method for hydrogen peroxide in atmospheric precipitation, Anal. Chem., 57, 917–922, 1985.

Lazrus, A L., Kok, G L., Lind, J A., Gitlin, S N., Heikes, B G., and Shetter, R E.: Automated fluorometric method for hydrogen peroxide in air, Anal. Chem., 58, 594–597, 1986.

Lee, M., Heikes, B G., Jacob, D J., Sachse, G., and Anderson, B.: Hydrogen peroxide, organic hydroperoxide, and formaldehyde as primary pollutants from biomass burning, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 1301–1309, 1997.

Lee, M H., Heikes, B G., and O'Sullivan, D W.: Hydrogen peroxide and organic hydroperoxide in the troposphere: A review, Atmos. Environ., 34, 3475–3494, 2000.

Lelieveld, J. and Crutzen, P J.: Influence of cloud photochemical processes on tropospheric ozone, Nature, 343, 227–233, 1990.

Lelieveld, J., Berresheim, H., Borrmann, S., Crutzen, P., Dentener, F., Fischer, H., Feichter, J., Flatau, P., Heland, J., Holzinger, R., et~al.: Global air pollution crossroads over the Mediterranean, Science, 298, 794–799, 2002.

Lightfoot, P., Cox, R., Crowley, J., Destriau, M., Hayman, G., Jenkin, M., Moortgat, G., and Zabel, F.: Organic peroxy radicals: kinetics, spectroscopy and tropospheric chemistry, Atmos. Environ. Part A, 26, 1805–1961, 1992.

Logan, J A., Prather, M J., Wofsy, S C., and McElroy, M B.: Tropospheric chemistry: A global perspective, J. Geophys. Res., 86, 7210–7254, 1981.

Mari, C., Saüt, C., Jacob, D J., Staudt, A., Avery, M A., Brune, W H., Faloona, I., Heikes, B G., Sachse, G W., Sandholm, S T., Singh, H B., and Tan, D.: On the relative role of convection, chemistry, and transport over the South Pacific Convergence Zone during PEM-Tropics B: A case study, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8232, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2001JD001466doi:10.1029/2001JD001466, 2003.

Martinez, M., Harder, H., Kubistin, D., Rudolf, M., Bozem, H., Eerdekens, G., Fischer, H., Klüpfel, T., Gurk, C., Königstedt, R., Parchatka, U., Schiller, C. L., Stickler, A., Williams, J., and Lelieveld, J.: Hydroxyl radicals in the tropical troposphere over the Suriname rainforest: airborne measurements, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 3759–3773, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-3759-2010doi:10.5194/acp-10-3759-2010, 2010.

Mohnen, V A. and Kadlecek, J A.: Cloud chemistry research at Whiteface Mountain, Tellus, 41B, 79–91, 1989.

Nunnermacker, L. J., Weinstein-Lloyd, J. B., Hillery, B., Giebel, B., Kleinman, L. I., Springston, S. R., Daum, P. H., Gaffney, J., Marley, N., and Huey, G.: Aircraft and ground-based measurements of hydroperoxides during the 2006 MILAGRO field campaign, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 7619–7636, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-7619-2008doi:10.5194/acp-8-7619-2008, 2008.

O'Sullivan, D W., Heikes, B G., Lee, M., Chang, W., Gregory, G L., Blake, D R., and Sachse, G W.: Distributions of hydrogen peroxide and methylhydroperoxide over the Pacific and South Atlantic Oceans, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 5635–5646, 1999.

O'Sullivan, D W., Heikes, B G., Snow, J., Burrow, P., Avery, M., Blake, D R., Sachse, G W., D C Thornton, R. W T., and Bandy, A R.: Long-term and seasonal variations in the levels of hydrogen peroxide, methylhydroperoxide, and selected compounds over the Pacific Ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D15S13, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003JD003689doi:10.1029/2003JD003689, 2004.

Palenik, B., Zafiriou, O C., and Morel, F. M M.: Hydrogen peroxide production by a marine phytoplankter, Limnol. Oceanogr., 32, 1365–1369, 1987.

Penkett, S., Jones, B., Brich, K., and Eggleton, A.: The importance of atmospheric ozone and hydrogen peroxide in oxidising sulphur dioxide in cloud and rainwater, Atmos. Environ., 13, 123–137, 1979.

Penkett, S A., Bandy, B J., Choularton, T W., Chandler, A S., Gallagher, M W., Gay, M J., Tyler, B J., Dollard, G J., and Jones, B. M R.: Field measurement of the rate of oxidation of sulphur dioxide by hydrogen peroxide in a cap cloud, in: Proc. Symp. Role of Clouds in Atmospheric Chemistry and Global Climate, pp. J7–J10, AMS, Anaheim, CA, 1989.

Perros, P E.: Large-scale distribution of hydrogen peroxide from aircraft measurements during TROPOZ II experiment, Atmos. Environ., 27, 1695–1708, 1993.

Pilz, W. and Johann, I.: Measurement of very small quantities of hydrogen peroxide in air, Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem., 3, 257–270, 1974.

Robbin~Martin, L. and Damschen, D.: Aqueous oxidation of sulfur dioxide by hydrogen peroxide at low pH, Atmos. Environ., 15, 1615–1621, 1981.

Roeckner, E., Brokopf, R., Esch, M., Giorgetta, M., Hagemann, S., and Kornblueh, L.: Sensitivity of simulated climate to horizontal and vertical resolution in the ECHAM5 atmosphere model, J. Climate, 19, 3771–3791, 2006.

Salzmann, M., Lawrence, M. G., Phillips, V. T. J., and Donner, L. J.: Model sensitivity studies regarding the role of the retention coefficient for the scavenging and redistribution of highly soluble trace gases by deep convective cloud systems, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 2027–2045, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-7-2027-2007doi:10.5194/acp-7-2027-2007, 2007.

Sander, R., Kerkweg, A., Jöckel, P., and Lelieveld, J.: Technical note: The new comprehensive atmospheric chemistry module MECCA, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 445–450, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-5-445-2005doi:10.5194/acp-5-445-2005, 2005.

Sander, R., Baumgaertner, A., Gromov, S., Harder, H., Jöckel, P., Kerkweg, A., Kubistin, D., Regelin, E., Riede, H., Sandu, A., Taraborrelli, D., Tost, H., and Xie, Z.-Q.: The atmospheric chemistry box model CAABA/MECCA-3.0gmdd, Geosci. Model Dev. Discuss., 4, 197–217, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gmdd-4-197-2011doi:10.5194/gmdd-4-197-2011, 2011.

Sander, S., Friedl, R., Golden, D., Kurylo, M., Huie, R., Orkin, V., Moortgat, G., Ravishankara, A., Kolb, C., Molina, M., et~al.: Chemical kinetics and photochemical data for use in atmospheric studies, evaluation number 14, JPL Publ., National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technologies, Pasadena, CA, 02, 25, 334, 2003.

Schiller, C., Bozem, H., Gurk, C., Parchatka, U., Konigstedt, R., Harris, G., Lelieveld, J., and Fischer, H.: Applications of quantum cascade lasers for sensitive trace gas measurements of CO, CH4, N2O and HCHO, Appl. Phys. B, 92, 419–430, 2008.

Slemr, F. and Tremmel, H G.: Hydroperoxides in the marine troposphere over the Atlantic Ocean, J. Atmos. Chem., 19, 371–404, 1994.

Snider, J. and Huang, J.: Factors influencing the retention of hydrogen peroxide and molecular oxygen in rime ice, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 1403–1415, 1998.

Snider, J R., Montague, D C., and Vali, G.: Hydrogen peroxide retention in rime ice, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 7569–7578, 1992.

Snow, J., Heikes, B G., Merrill, J T., Wimmers, A J., Moody, J L., and Cantrell, C A.: Winter-spring evolution and variability of HO$_x$ reservoir species, hydrogen peroxide, and methyl hydroperoxide, in the northern middle to high latitudes, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8362, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002172doi:10.1029/2002JD002172, 2003.

Snow, J., Heikes, B., Shen, H., D. W. O'Sullivan, Fried, A., and Walega, J.: Hydrogen peroxide, methyl peroxide, and formaldehyde over North America and the North Atlantic, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D12S07, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007746doi:10.1029/2006JD007746, 2007.

Stickler, A., Fischer, H., Williams, J., de~Reus, M., Sander, R., Lawrence, M G., Crowley, J N., and Lelieveld, J.: Influence of summertime deep convection on formaldehyde in the middle and upper troposphere over Europe, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D14308, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005JD007001doi:10.1029/2005JD007001, 2006.

Stickler, A., Fischer, H., Bozem, H., Gurk, C., Schiller, C., Martinez-Harder, M., Kubistin, D., Harder, H., Williams, J., Eerdekens, G., Yassaa, N., Ganzeveld, L., Sander, R., and Lelieveld, J.: Chemistry, transport and dry deposition of trace gases in the boundary layer over the tropical Atlantic Ocean and the Guyanas during the GABRIEL field campaign, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 3933–3956, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-7-3933-2007doi:10.5194/acp-7-3933-2007, 2007.

Stuart, A. and Jacobson, M.: A timescale investigation of volatile chemical retention during hydrometeor freezing: Nonrime freezing and dry growth riming without spreading, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108, 4178, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2001JD001408doi:10.1029/2001JD001408, 2003.

Stuart, A. and Jacobson, M.: Chemical retention during dry growth riming, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 109, D07305, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003JD004197doi:10.1029/2003JD004197, 2004.

Tost, H., Jöckel, P., Kerkweg, A., Sander, R., and Lelieveld, J.: Technical note: A new comprehensive SCAVenging submodel for global atmospheric chemistry modelling, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 565–574, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-6-565-2006doi:10.5194/acp-6-565-2006, 2006.

Tost, H., Jöckel, P., Kerkweg, A., Pozzer, A., Sander, R., and Lelieveld, J.: Global cloud and precipitation chemistry and wet deposition: tropospheric model simulations with ECHAM5/MESSy1, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 2733–2757, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-7-2733-2007doi:10.5194/acp-7-2733-2007, 2007.

von Kuhlmann, R., Lawrence, M., Crutzen, P., and Rasch, P.: A model for studies of tropospheric ozone and nonmethane hydrocarbons: Model description and ozone results, J. Geophys. Res, 108, 4294, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002893doi:10.1029/2002JD002893, 2003.

Walker, S. J., Evans, M. J., Jackson, A. V., Steinbacher, M., Zellweger, C., and McQuaid, J. B.: Processes controlling the concentration of hydroperoxides at Jungfraujoch Observatory, Switzerland, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 5525–5536, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-6-5525-2006doi:10.5194/acp-6-5525-2006, 2006.

Wang, C. and Crutzen, P. J.: Impact of a simulated severe local storm on the redistribution of sulfur dioxide, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 11357–11367, 1995.

Weinstein-Lloyd, J B., Lee, J H., Daum, P H., Kleinman, L I., Nunnermacker, L J., Springston, S R., and Newman, L.: Measurements of peroxides and related species during the 1995 summer intensive of the Southern Oxidants Study in Nashville, Tennessee, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 22361–22373, 1998.

Weller, R., Schrems, O., Boddenberg, A., Gäb, S., and Gautrois, M.: Meridional distribution of hydroperoxides and formaldehyde in the marine boundary layer of the Atlantic ($48^\circ$ N–$35^\circ$ S) measured during the Albatross campaign, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 14401–14412, 2000.

Yin, Y., Carslaw, K. S., and Parker, D. J.: Redistribution of trace gases by convective clouds – mixed-phase processes, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 2, 293–306, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-2-293-2002doi:10.5194/acp-2-293-2002, 2002.