References

ACP

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

ACP

1680-7324

Copernicus GmbH

Göttingen, Germany

10.5194/acp-11-3757-2011

Dynamical states of low temperature cirrus

Barahona

¹ ³ Nenes

¹ ²

School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA

School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA

now at: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA

26 04 2011

11 8 3757 3771

This is an open-access article ditributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

This article is available from http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/11/3757/2011/acp-11-3757-2011.html

The full text article is available as a PDF file from http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/11/3757/2011/acp-11-3757-2011.pdf

Low ice crystal concentration and sustained in-cloud supersaturation, commonly found in cloud observations at low temperature, challenge our understanding of cirrus formation. Heterogeneous freezing from effloresced ammonium sulfate, glassy aerosol, dust and black carbon are proposed to cause these phenomena; this requires low updrafts for cirrus characteristics to agree with observations and is at odds with the gravity wave spectrum in the upper troposphere. Background temperature fluctuations however can establish a "dynamical equilibrium" between ice production and sedimentation loss (as opposed to ice crystal formation during the first stages of cloud evolution and subsequent slow cloud decay) that explains low temperature cirrus properties. This newly-discovered state is favored at low temperatures and does not require heterogeneous nucleation to occur (the presence of ice nuclei can however facilitate its onset). Our understanding of cirrus clouds and their role in anthropogenic climate change is reshaped, as the type of dynamical forcing will set these clouds in one of two "preferred" microphysical regimes with very different susceptibility to aerosol.

References 1

% vor jede Referenz Abbatt, J. P. D., Benz, S., Cziczo, D. J., Kanji, Z., and Möhler, O.: Solid ammonium sulfate as ice nuclei: a pathway for cirrus cloud formation, Science, 313, 1770–1773, 2006.

Bacmeister, J., Eckermann, S. D., Tsias, A., Carslaw, K. S., and Peter, T.: Mesoscale temperature fluctuations induced by a spectrum of gravity waves: A comparison of parameterizations and their impact on stratospheric microphysics, J. Atmos. Sci., 56, 1913–1924, 1999.

Barahona, D. and Nenes, A.: Parameterization of cloud droplet formation in large scale models: including effects of entrainment, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D16026; doi:16010.11029/16207JD008473, 2007.

Barahona, D. and Nenes, A.: Parameterization of cirrus formation in large scale models: Homogeneous nucleation, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D11211, doi:11210.11029/12007JD009355, 2008.

Barahona, D. and Nenes, A.: Parameterizing the competition between homogeneous and heterogeneous freezing in ice cloud formation � polydisperse ice nuclei, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 5933–5948, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-5933-2009doi:10.5194/acp-9-5933-2009, 2009a.

Barahona, D. and Nenes, A.: Parameterizing the competition between homogeneous and heterogeneous freezing in cirrus cloud formation - monodisperse ice nuclei, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 369–381, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-369-2009doi:10.5194/acp-9-369-2009, 2009b.

Barahona, D., Rodriguez, J. M., and Nenes, A.: Sensitivity of the global distribution of cirrus Ice crystal concentration to heterogeneous freezing, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D23213, http://dx.doi.org/23210.21029/22010JD014273doi:23210.21029/22010JD014273, 2010a.

Barahona, D., West, R. E. L., Stier, P., Romakkaniemi, S., Kokkola, H., and Nenes, A.: Comprehensively accounting for the effect of giant CCN in cloud activation parameterizations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 2467–2473, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-2467-2010doi:10.5194/acp-10-2467-2010, 2010b.

DeMott, P. J., Meyers, M. P., and Cotton, R. W.: Parameterization and impact of ice initiation processes relevant to numerical model simulations of cirrus clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 77–90, 1994.

DeMott, P. J., Cziczo, D. J., Prenni, A. J., Murphy, D. M., Kreidenweis, S. M., Thompson, D. S., Borys, R., and Rogers, D. C.: Measurements of the concentration and composition of nuclei for cirrus formation, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 100, 14655–14660, 2003.

Durran, D. R., Dinh, T., Ammerman, M., and Ackerman, T.: The mesoscale dynamics of thin tropical tropopause cirrus, J. Atmos. Sci., 66, 2859–2873, http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2009JAS3046.1doi:10.1175/2009JAS3046.1, 2009.

Fountoukis, C. and Nenes, A.: ISORROPIA II: a computationally efficient thermodynamic equilibrium model for K$^+$�Ca$^2+$�Mg2+�NH$_4^+$�Na$^+$�SO$_4^2-$�NO$_3^-$�Cl$^-$�H<sub>2</sub>O aerosols, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 4639–4659, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-7-4639-2007doi:10.5194/acp-7-4639-2007, 2007.

Froyd, K. D., Murphy, D. M., Sanford, T. J., Thomson, D. S., Wilson, J. C., Pfister, L., and Lait, L.: Aerosol composition of the tropical upper troposphere, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 4363–4385, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-4363-2009doi:10.5194/acp-9-4363-2009, 2009.

Gao, R. S., Popp, P. J., Fahey, D. W., Marcy, T. P., Herman, R. L., Weinstock, E. M., Baumgardner, D. G., Garrett, T. J., Rosenlof, K. H., Thompson, T. L., Bui, P. T., Ridley, B. A., Wofsy, S. C., Toon, O. B., Tolbert, M. A., Kärcher, B., Peter, T., Hudson, P. K., Weinheimer, A. J., and Heymsfield, A. J.: Evidence that nitric acid increases relative humidity in low-temperature cirrus clouds, Science, 303, 516–520, 2004.

Gayet, J. F., Ovarlez, J., Shcherbakov, V., Ström, J., Schumann, U., Minikin, A., Auriol, F., Petzold, A., and Monier, M.: Cirrus cloud microphysical and optical properties at southern and northern midlatitudes during the INCA experiment, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D20206, doi:20210.21029/22004JD004803, 2004.

Gensch, I. V., Bunz, H., Baumgardner, D. G., Christensen, L. E., Fahey, D. W., Herman, R. L., Popp, P. J., Smith, J. B., Troy, R. F., Webster, C. R., Weinstock, E. M., Wilson, J., Peter, T., and Krämer, M.: Supersaturations, microphysics and nitric acid partitioning in a cold cirrus cloud observed during CR-AVE 2006: an observation-modelling intercomparison study, Environ. Res. Lett., 3, 035003, http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/3/3/035003doi:10.1088/1748-9326/3/3/035003, 2008.

Haag, W., Kärcher, B., Strö�m, J., Minikin, A., Lohmann, U., Ovarlez, J., and Stohl, A.: Freezing thresholds and cirrus cloud formation mechanisms inferred from in situ measurements of relative humidity, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 1791–1806, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-3-1791-2003doi:10.5194/acp-3-1791-2003, 2003.

Herzog, A. and Vial, F.: A study of the dynamics of the equatorial lower stratosphere by use of ultra-long-duration balloons, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 22745–22761, 2001.

Heymsfield, A. J. and Platt, C. M.: A parameterization of the particle size spectrum of ice clouds in terms of the ambient temperature and ice water content, J. Atmos. Sci., 41, 846–855, 1984.

Heymsfield, A. J. and Sabin, R. M.: Cirrus crystal nucleation by homogenous freezing of solution droplets., J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 2252–2264, 1989.

Heymsfield, A. J. and Iaquinta, J.: Cirrus crystals terminal velocities, J. Atmos. Sci., 57, 916–938, 2000.

Hoyle, C. R., Luo, B. P., and Peter, T.: The origin of high ice crystal number densities in cirrus clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 2658–2579, 2005.

Jensen, E. J. and Pfister, L.: Transport and freeze-drying in the tropical tropopause layer, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D02207, doi:02210.01029/02003JD004022, 2004.

Jensen, E. J., Smith, J. B., Pfister, L., Pittman, J. V., Weinstock, E. M., Sayres, D. S., Herman, R. L., Troy, R. F., Rosenlof, K., Thompson, T. L., Fridlind, A. M., Hudson, P. K., Cziczo, D. J., Heymsfield, A. J., Schmitt, C., and Wilson, J. C.: Ice supersaturations exceeding 100% at the cold tropical tropopause: implications for cirrus formation and dehydration, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 851–862, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-5-851-2005doi:10.5194/acp-5-851-2005, 2005.

Jensen, E. J., Pfister, L., Bui, T. V., Lawson, P., Baker, B., Mo, Q., Baumgardner, D., Weinstock, E. M., Smith, J. B., Moyer, E. J., Hanisco, T. F., Sayres, D. S., Clair, J. M. St., Alexander, M. J., Toon, O. B., and Smith, J. A.: Formation of large (≃100 μm) ice crystals near the tropical tropopause, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 1621–1633, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-1621-2008doi:10.5194/acp-8-1621-2008, 2008.

Jensen, E. J., Pfister, L., Bui, T.-P., Lawson, P., and Baumgardner, D.: Ice nucleation and cloud microphysical properties in tropical tropopause layer cirrus, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 1369–1384, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-1369-2010doi:10.5194/acp-10-1369-2010, 2010.

Kärcher, B. and Burkhardt, U.: A cirrus scheme for global circulation models, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 134, 1439–1461; doi:1410.1002/Qj.1301, 2008.

Kärcher, B. and Lohmann, U.: A parameterization of cirrus cloud formation: homogeneous freezing of supercooled aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4010, doi:4010.1029/2001JD000470, 2002.

Kärcher, B. and Haag, W.: Factors controlling upper tropospheric relative humidity, Ann. Geophys., 22, 705–715, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/angeo-22-705-2004doi:10.5194/angeo-22-705-2004, 2004.

Kärcher, B., Hendricks, J., and Lohmann, U.: Physically based parameterization of cirrus cloud formation for use in global atmospheric models, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D01205, doi:01210.01029/02005JD006219, 2006.

Kay, J. E., Baker, M., and Hegg, D.: Physical controls on orographic cirrus inhomogeneity, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 3771–3781, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-7-3771-2007doi:10.5194/acp-7-3771-2007, 2007.

Khvorostyanov, V. I., Morrison, H., Curry, J. A., Baumgardner, D. G., and Lawson, P.: High supersaturation and modes of ice nucleation in thin tropopause cirrus: simulation of the 13 July 2002 cirrus regional study of tropical anvils and cirrus layers case, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D02201, doi:02210.01029/02004JD005235, 2006.

Kim, Y.-J., Eckermann, S. D., and Chun, H.-Y.: An overview of the past, present, and future of gravity-wave drag parameterization for numerical climate and weather prediction models, Atmos.-Ocean, 41, 65–98, 2003.

Koop, T., Luo, B., Tslas, A., and Peter, T.: Water activity as the determinant for homogeneous ice nucleation in aqueous solutions, Nature, 406, 611–614, 2000.

Korolev, A. V. and Mazin, I. P.: Supersaturation of water vapor in clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 60, 2957–2974, 2003.

Krämer, M., Schiller, C., Afchine, A., Bauer, R., Gensch, I., Mangold, A., Schlicht, S., Spelten, N., Sitnikov, N., Borrmann, S., de Reus, M., and Spichtinger, P.: Ice supersaturations and cirrus cloud crystal numbers, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 3505–3522, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-3505-2009doi:10.5194/acp-9-3505-2009, 2009.

Lawson, R. P., Pilson, B., Baker, B., Mo, Q., Jensen, E., Pfister, L., and Bui, P.: Aircraft measurements of microphysical properties of subvisible cirrus in the tropical tropopause layer, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 1609–1620, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-1609-2008doi:10.5194/acp-8-1609-2008, 2008.

Liou, K.: Influence of cirrus clouds on weather and climate processes: a global perspective, Mon. Weather Rev., 114, 1167–1199, 1986.

Lohmann, U. and Feichter, J.: Global indirect aerosol effects: a review, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 715–737, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-5-715-2005doi:10.5194/acp-5-715-2005, 2005.

Magee, N., Moyle, A. M., and Lamb, D.: Experimental determination of the deposition coefficient of small cirrus-like ice crystals near −50 °C, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L17813, doi:17810.11029/12006GL026665, 2006.

Murray, B. J.: Inhibition of ice crystallisation in highly viscous aqueous organic acid droplets, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 5423–5433, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-5423-2008doi:10.5194/acp-8-5423-2008, 2008.

Murphy, D. M. and Koop, T.: Review of the vapour pressures of ice and supercooled water for atmospheric applications, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 131, 1539–1565, 2005.

Murray, B. J., Knopf, D. A., and Bertram, A. K.: The formation of cubic ice under conditions relevant to Earth's atmosphere, Nature, 434, 202–205, 2005.

Murray, B. J., Wilson, T. W., Dobbie, S., Cui, Z., Al-Jumur, S. M. R. K., Möhler, O., Schnaiter, M., Wagner, R., Benz, S., Niemand, M., Saathoff, H., Ebert, V., Wagner, S., and Kärcher, B.: Heterogeneous nucleation of ice particles on glassy aerosol under cirrus conditions, Nature Geosci., 3, 233–237, 2010.

Peter, T.: Microphysics and heterogeneous chemistry of polar stratospheric clouds Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem., 48, 785–822, 1997.

Peter, T., Marcolli, C., Spichtinger, P., Corti, T., Baker, B., and Koop, T.: When dry air is too humid, Science, 314, 1399–1401, 2006.

Pruppacher, H. R. and Klett, J. D.: Microphysics of clouds and precipitation 2nd ed., Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, MA, 954 pp., 1997.

Ramanathan, V. and Collins, W.: Thermodynamic regulation of ocean warming by cirrus clouds deduced from observations of 1987 El Nino, Nature, 351, 27–32, 1991.

Sato, K.: Vertical wind disturbances in the troposphere and lower stratosphere observed by the MU radar, J. Atmos. Sci., 47, 2803–2817, 1990.

Seinfeld, J. H.: Clouds, contrails and climate, Nature, 391, 837–838, 1998.

Seinfeld, J. H. and Pandis, S. N.: Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY, USA, 1998.

Selkirk, H. B., Vömel, H., Valverde Canossa, J. M., Pfister, L., Diaz, J. A., Fernández, W., Amador, J., Stolz, W., and Peng, G. S.: Detailed structure of the tropical upper troposphere and lower stratosphere as revealed by balloon sonde observations of water vapor, ozone, temperature, and winds during the NASA TCSP and TC4 campaigns, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D00J19, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009jd013209doi:10.1029/2009jd013209, 2010.

Shilling, J. E., Fortin, T. J., and Tolbert, M. A.: Depositional ice nucleation on crystalline organic and inorganic solids, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D12204; doi:12101.11029/12005JD006664, 2006.

Spichtinger, P. and Gierens, K. M.: Modelling of cirrus clouds – Part 2: Competition of different nucleation mechanisms, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 2319–2334, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-2319-2009doi:10.5194/acp-9-2319-2009, 2009a.

Spichtinger, P. and Gierens, K. M.: Modelling of cirrus clouds – Part 1b: Structuring cirrus clouds by dynamics, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 707–719, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-707-2009doi:10.5194/acp-9-707-2009, 2009b.

Wise, M. E., Baustian, K. J., and Tolbert, M. A.: Internally mixed sulfate and organic particles as potential ice nuclei in the tropical tropopause region, 107, 6693–6698, doi:6610.1073/pnas.0913018107, 2010.