References

ACP

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

ACP

1680-7324

Copernicus GmbH

Göttingen, Germany

10.5194/acp-10-10359-2010

Review and parameterisation of bi-directional ammonia exchange between vegetation and the atmosphere

Massad

R.-S.

¹ ² Nemitz

¹ Sutton

M. A.

Center for Ecology and Hydrology, Edinburgh Research Station, Bush Estate, Penicuik Midlothian EH26 0QB, UK

now at: INRA, AgroParisTech, UMR 1091 EGC, 78850 Thiverval Grignon, France

04 11 2010

10 21 10359 10386

This is an open-access article ditributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

This article is available from http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/10/10359/2010/acp-10-10359-2010.html

The full text article is available as a PDF file from http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/10/10359/2010/acp-10-10359-2010.pdf

Current deposition schemes used in atmospheric chemical transport models do not generally account for bi-directional exchange of ammonia (NH3). Bi-directional exchange schemes, which have so far been applied at the plot scale, can be included in transport models, but need to be parameterised with appropriate values of the ground layer compensation point (χg), stomatal compensation point (χs) and cuticular resistance (Rw). We review existing measurements of χg, χs as well as Rw and compile a comprehensive dataset from which we then propose generalised parameterisations. χs is related to Γs, the non-dimensional ratio of [NH4+]apo and [H+]apo in the apoplast, through the temperature dependence of the combined Henry and dissociation equilibrium. The meta-analysis suggests that the nitrogen (N) input is the main driver of the apoplastic and bulk leaf concentrations of ammonium (NH4 apo<sup+, NH4 bulk<sup+). For managed ecosystems, the main source of N is fertilisation which is reflected in a peak value of χs a few days following application, but also alters seasonal values of NH4 apo<sup+ and NH4 bulk<sup+. We propose a parameterisation for χs which includes peak values as a function of amount and type of fertiliser application which gradually decreases to a background value. The background χs is based on total N input to the ecosystem as a yearly fertiliser application and N deposition (Ndep). For non-managed ecosystems, χs is parameterised based solely on the link with Ndep. For Rw we propose a general parameterisation as a function of atmospheric relative humidity (RH), incorporating a minimum value (Rw(min)), which depends on the ratio of atmospheric acid concentrations (SO2, HNO3 and HCl) to NH3 concentrations. The parameterisations are based mainly on datasets from temperate locations in northern Europe making them most suitable for up-scaling in these regions (EMEP model for example). In principle, the parameterisations should be applicable to other climates, though there is a need for more underpinning data, with the uncertainties being especially large for tropical and subtropical conditions.

References 1

% vor jede Referenz Adams, P. J., Seinfeld, J. H., Koch, D., Mickley, L., and Jacob, D.: General circulation model assessment of direct radiative forcing by the sulfate-nitrate-ammonium-water inorganic aerosol system. J. Geophys. Res-Atmos., 106, 1097–1111, 2001.

Andersen, H. V., Hovmand, M. F., Hummelshoj, P., and Jensen, N. O.: Measurements of ammonia concentrations, fluxes and dry deposition velocities to a spruce forest 1991–1995, Atmos. Environ., 33, 1367–1383, 1999.

Bleeker, A., Sutton, M. A., Acherman, B., Alebic-Juretic, A., Aneja, V. P., Ellermann, T., Erisman, J. W., Fowler, D., Fagerli, H., Gauger, T., Harlen, K. S., Hole, L. R., Horvath, L., Mitosinkova, M., Smith, R. I., Tang, Y. S., and Pul, A.: Linking ammonia emission trends to measured concentrations and deposition of reduced nitrogen at different scales, in: Atmospheric Ammonia – Detecting emission changes and environmental impacts. Results of an expert workshop under the convention of long-range transboundary air pollution, edited by: Sutton M. A., Reis S., Baker S. M. H. , Atmospheric Ammonia – Detecting emission changes and environmental impacts. Results of an expert workshop under the convention of long-range transboundary air pollution, Springer, 123–180, 2009.

Burkhardt, J., Flechard, C. R., Gresens, F., Mattsson, M., Jongejan, P. A. C., Erisman, J. W., Weidinger, T., Meszaros, R., Nemitz, E., and Sutton, M. A.: Modelling the dynamic chemical interactions of atmospheric ammonia with leaf surface wetness in a managed grassland canopy, Biogeosciences, 6, 67–84, doi:10.5194/bg-6-67-2009, 2009.

Byun, D. and Schere, K. L.: Review of the Governing Equations, Computational Algorithms, and Other Components of the Models-3 Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) Modeling System, Appl. Mech. Rev.,~59,~51–77, 2006.

Cooter, E. J. and Bash, J. O.: A process based ammonia emission model for agricultural soils, NADP Annual meeting and scientific symposium, October 8, 2009.

Cooter, E. J., Bash, J. O., Walker, J. T., Jones, M. R., and Robarge, W.: Estimation of NH3 bi-directional flux from managed agricultural soils, Atmos. Environ., 44, 2107–2115, 2010.

Dabney, S. M. and Bouldin, D. R.: Apparent deposition velocity and compensation point of ammonia inferred from gradient measurements above and through alfalfa. Atmos. Environ. Part A. General Topics, 24, 2655–2666, 1990.

David, M., Loubet, B., Cellier, P., Mattsson, M., Schjoerring, J. K., Nemitz, E., Roche, R., Riedo, M., and Sutton, M. A.: Ammonia sources and sinks in an intensively managed grassland canopy, Biogeosciences, 6, 1903–1915, doi:10.5194/bg-6-1903-2009, 2009.

Dewar, R. C.: The Ball-Berry-Leuning and Tardieu-Davies stomatal models: synthesis and extension within a spatially aggregated picture of guard cell function, Plant, Cell Environ., 25, 1383–1398, 2002.

Dijk, N., Leith, I. D., Pitcairn, C. E. R., and Sutton, M. A.: Soluble ammonium in plants as a bioindicator for atmospheric nitrogen deposition: refinement and testing of a practical method, in: Atmospheric Ammonia – Detecting emission changes and environmental impacts. Results of an expert workshop under the convention of long-range transboundary air pollution, edited by: Sutton, M. A., Reis, S., and Baker, S. M. H., Springer, 281–289, 2009.

Duyzer, J.: Dry depoistion of ammonia and ammoniium aerosols over heathland, J. Geophys. Res-Atmos, 99, 18757–18763, 1994.

Erisman, J. W. and Wyers, G. P.: Continuous measurements of surface exchange of SO2 and NH3 – Implication for their possible interaction in the deposition process, Atmos. Environ. Part a-General Topics, 27, 1937–1949, 1993.

Erisman, J. W.: Evaluation of a surface resistance parametrization of sulfur-dioxide, Atmos. Environ., 28, 2583–2594, 1994.

Erisman, J. W., Vanelzakker, B. G., Mennen, M. G., Hogenkamp, J., Zwart, E., Vandenbeld, L., Romer, F. G., Bobbink, R., Heil, G., Raessen, M., Duyzer, J. H., Verhage, H., Wyers, G. P., Otjes, R. P., and Mols, J. J.: The Elspeetsche Veld experiment on surface exchange of trace gases – Summary of results, Atmos. Environ., 28, 487–496, 1994.

Erisman, J. W., Sutton, M. A., Galloway, J., Klimont, Z., and Winiwarter, W.: How a century of ammonia synthesis changed the world, Nat. Geosci., 1, 636–639, 2008.

Farquhar, G. D., Firth, P. M., Wetselaar, R., and Weir, B.: On the gaseous exchange of ammonia between leaves and the environment: determination of the ammonia compensation point, Plant Physiol., 66, 710–714, 1980.

Finlayson-Pitts, B. J. and Pitts, J. N.: Chemistry of the upper and lower atmosphere: theory, experiments, and applications, Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 969~pp., 1999.

Finnemann, J. and Schjoerring, J. K.: Translocation of NH$_4^+$ in oilseed rape plants in relation to glutamine synthetase isogene expression and activity, Physiol. Plantarum, 105, 469–477, 1999.

Flechard, C. R.: Turbulent exchange of ammonia above vegetation, Nottingham University, 231~pp., 1998.

Flechard, C. R. and Fowler, D.: Atmospheric ammonia at a moorland site. I: The meteorological control of ambient ammonia concentrations and the influence of local sources, Q. J. Roy Meteor. Soc., 124, 733–757, 1998.

Flechard, C. R., Fowler, D., Sutton, M. A., and Cape, J. N.: A dynamic chemical model of bi-directional ammonia exchange between semi-natural vegetation and the atmosphere, Q. J. Roy Meteor. Soc., 125, 2611–2641, 1999.

Flechard, C. R., Spirig, C., Neftel, A., and Ammann, C.: The annual ammonia budget of fertilised cut grassland – Part 2: Seasonal variations and compensation point modeling, Biogeosciences, 7, 537–556, doi:10.5194/bg-7-537-2010, 2010.

Fowler, D., Smith, R. I., Muller, J. B. A., Hayman, G., and Vincent, K. J.: Changes in the atmospheric deposition of acidifying compounds in the UK between 1986 and 2001, Environ. Pollut., 137, 15–25, 2005.

Fowler, D., Cape, N., Smith, R., Nemitz, E., Sutton, M., Dore, T., Coyle, M., Crossley, A., Storeton-West, R., Muller, J., Phillips, G., Thomas, R., Vieno, M., Tang, S., Famulari, D., Twigg, M., Bealey, B., Benham, D., Hayman, G., Lawrence, H., Vincent, K., Fagerli, H., and Simpson, D.: Acid deposition processes final report to Defra, NERC/Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, 110, 2007.

Fowler, D., Pilegaard, K., Sutton, M., Ambus, P., Raivonen, M., Duyzer, J., Simpson, D., Fagerli, H., Fuzzi, S., Schjoerring, J., Granier, C., Neftel, A., Isaksen, I., Laj, P., Maione, M., Monks, P., Burkhardt, J., Daemmgen, U., Neirynck, J., Personne, E., Wichink-Kruit, R., Butterbach-Bahl, K., Flechard, C., Tuovinen, J., Coyle, M., Gerosa, G., Loubet, B., Altimir, N., Gruenhage, L., Ammann, C., Cieslik, S., Paoletti, E., Mikkelsen, T., Ro-Poulsen, H., Cellier, P., Cape, J., Horvath, L., Loreto, F., Niinemets, U., Palmer, P., Rinne, J., Misztal, P., Nemitz, E., Nilsson, D., Pryor, S., Gallagher, M., Vesala, T., Skiba, U., Bruggemann, N., Zechmeister-Boltenstern, S., Williams, J., O'Dowd, C., Facchini, M., de Leeuw, G., Flossman, A., Chaumerliac, N., and Erisman, J.: Atmospheric composition change: Ecosystems-Atmosphere interactions, Atmos. Environ.,~43,~5193–5267, 2009.

Francis, D. D., Schepers, S. J., and Sims, A. L.: Ammonia exchange from corn foliage during reproductive growth, Agroclimatology Journal, 89, 941–946, 1997.

Galloway, J. N., Aber, J. D., Erisman, J. W., Seitzinger, S. P., Howarth, R. W., Cowling, E. B., and Cosby, B. J.: The Nitrogen Cascade, BioScience, 53, 341–356, 2003.

Garland, J. A.: The dry deposition of sulphur dioxide to land and water surfaces, Proc. R. Soc. Lon Ser.-A, 354, 245–268, 1977.

Génermont, S. and Cellier, P.: A mechanistic model for estimating ammonia volatilization from slurry applied to bare soil, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 88, 145–167, 1997.

Gessler, A., Rienks, M., and Rennenberg, H.: NH3 and NO2 fluxes between beech trees and the atmosphere – correlation with climatic and physiological parameters, New Phytol., 147, 539–560, 2000.

Hanstein, S., Mattsson, M., Jaeger, H.-J., and Schjoerring, J. K.: Uptake and utilization of atmospheric ammonia in three native Poaceae species: leaf conductances, composition of apoplastic solution and interactions with root nitrogen supply, New Phytol., 141, 71–83, 1999.

Harper, L. A. and Sharpe, R. R.: Nitrogen dynamics in irrigated corn - Soil-Plant nitrogen and atmospheric ammonia transport, Agron. J., 87, 669–675, 1995.

Harrison, R. and Webb, J.: A review of the effect of N fertilizer type on gaseous emissions, Adv. Agron., 73, 65–108, 2001.

Hartmann, A.: Erarbeitung von Methoden zur Extraktion der Extrazellulärflüssigkeit von Fichtennadeln für die Bestimmung des Ammoniak-Kompensationspunktes, Interdisziplinäres Ökologisches Zentrum, Bergakademie Freiberg, 2005.

Herrmann, B., Mattsson, M., Fuhrer, J., and Schjoerring, J. K.: Leaf-atmosphere NH3 exchange of white clover (Trifolium repens L.) in relation to mineral N nutrition and symbiotic N2 fixation, J. Exp. Bot., 53, 139–146, 2002.

Herrmann, B., Mattsson, M., Jones, S. K., Cellier, P., Milford, C., Sutton, M. A., Schjoerring, J. K., and Neftel, A.: Vertical structure and diurnal variability of ammonia exchange potential within an intensively managed grass canopy, Biogeosciences, 6, 15–23, doi:10.5194/bg-6-15-2009, 2009.

Hesterberg, R., Blatter, A., Fahrni, M., Rosset, M., Neftel, A., Eugster, W., and Wanner, H.: Deposition of nitrogen-containing compounds to an extensively managed grassland in central Switzerland, Environ. Pollut., 91, 21–34, 1996.

Hill, P. W., Raven, J. A., Loubet, B., Fowler, D., and Sutton, M. A.: Comparison of gas exchange and bioassay determinations of the ammonia compensation point in Luzula sylvatica (Huds.) Gaud, Plant Physiol., 125, 476–487, 2001.

Hill, P. W., Raven, J. A., and Sutton, M. A.: Leaf age-related differences in apoplastic NH$_4^+$ concentration, pH and the NH3 compensation point for a wild perennial, J. Exp. Bot., 53, 277–286, 2002.

Högström, U.: Review of some basic characteristics of the atmospheric surface layer, Bound-Lay. Meteorol., 78, 215–246, 1996.

Horvath, L., Asztalos, M., Fuhrer, E., Meszaros, R., and Weidinger, T.: Measurement of ammonia exchange over grassland in the Hungarian Great Plain, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 130, 282–298, 2005.

Husted, S. and Schjoerring, J. K.: A computer-controlled system for studying ammonia exchange, photosynthesis and transpiration of plant canopies growing under controlled environmental conditions, Plant Cell Environ., 18, 1070–1077, 1995a.

Husted, S. and Schjoerring, J. K.: Apoplastic pH and Ammonium Concentration in Leaves of Brassica napus L., Plant Physiol., 109, 1453–1460, 1995b.

Husted, S., Mattsson, M., and Schjoerring, J. K.: Ammonia compensation points in two cultivars of Hordeum vulgare L. during vegetative and generative growth, Plant Cell Environ., 19, 1299–1306, 1996.

Husted, S. and Schjoerring, J. K.: Ammonia flux between oilseed rape plants and the atmosphere in response to changes in leaf temperature, light intensity, and air humidity. Interactions with leaf conductance and apoplastic NH$_4^+$ and H$^+$ concentrations, Plant Physiol., 112, 57–74, 1996.

Husted, S., Hebbern, C. A., Mattsson, M., and Schjoerring, J. K.: A critical experimental evaluation of methods for determination of NH$_4^+$ in plant tissue, xylem sap and apoplastic fluid, Physiol. Plantarum, 109, 167–179, 2000a.

Husted, S., Schjoerring, J. K., Nielsen, K. H., Nemitz, E., and Sutton, M. A.: Stomatal compensation points for ammonia in oilseed rape plants under field conditions, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 105, 371–383, 2000b.

Jarvis, P. G.: The interpretation of the variations in leaf water potential and stomatal conductance found in canopies in the field, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. B, 273, 293–310, 1976.

Jensen, N. O. and Hummelshøj, P.: Derivation of canopy resistance for water vapour fluxes over a spruce forest, using a new technique for the viscous sub-layer resistance, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 73, 339–352, 1995.

Jensen, N. O. and Hummelshøj, P.: Erratum, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 85, 289–289, 1997.

Jones, M. R., Leith, I. D., Fowler, D., Raven, J. A., Sutton, M. A., Nemitz, E., Cape, J. N., Sheppard, L. J., Smith, R. I., and Theobald, M. R.: Concentration-dependent NH3 deposition processes for mixed moorland semi-natural vegetation, Atmos. Environ., 41, 2049–2060, 2007a.

Jones, M. R., Leith, I. D., Raven, J. A., Fowler, D., Sutton, M. A., Nemitz, E., Cape, J. N., Sheppard, L. J., and Smith, R. I.: Concentration-dependent NH3 deposition processes for moorland plant species with and without stomata, Atmos. Environ., 41, 8980–8994, 2007b.

Kesselmeier, J., Merk, L., Bliefernicht, M., and Helas, G.: Trace gas exchange between terrestrial plants and atmosphere: carbon dioxide, carbonyl sulfide and ammonia under the rule of compensation points, in: General Assessment of Biogenic emissions and Deposition of Nitrogen Compounds, sulphur compounds and oxidants in Europe, Brussels, 71–80, 1993.

Klemm, O., Milford, C., Sutton, M. A., Spindler, G., and van Putten, E.: A climatology of leaf surface wetness, Theor. Appl. Climatol., 71, 107–117, 2002.

Krupa, S. V.: Effects of atmospheric ammonia (NH$_3)$ on terrestrial vegetation: a review. Environ. Pollut., 124, 179–221, 2003.

Lafleur, P. M. and Rouse, W. R.: Application of an energy combination model for evaporation from sparse canopies, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 49, 135–153, 1990.

Lambers, H., Chapin III, F. S., and Pons, T. L.: Plant physiological ecology, 2nd ed., edited by: Springer-Verlag, New York, 610~pp., 2008.

Langford, A. O. and Fehsenfeld, F. C.: Natural vegetation as a source or sink for atmospheric ammonia – a case-study, Science, 255, 581–583, 1992.

Lemon, E. and Van Houtte, R.: Ammonia Exchange at the Land Surface, Agron. J., 72, 876–883, 1980.

Loubet, B., Milford, C., Hill, P. W., Sim Tang, Y., Cellier, P., and Sutton, M. A.: Seasonal variability of apoplastic NH$_4^+$ and pH in an intensively managed grassland, Plant Soil, 238, 97–110, 2002.

Manderscheid, R., Schaaf, S., Mattsson, M., and Schjoerring, J. K.: Glufosinate treatment of weeds results in ammonia emission by plants, Agr. Ecosyst. Environ., 109, 129–140, 2005.

Massad, R.-S., Loubet, B., Tuzet, A., Autret, H., and Cellier, P.: Ammonia stomatal compensation point of young oilseed rape leaves during dark/light cycles under various nitrogen nutritions, Agr. Ecosyst. Environ., 133, 170–182, 2009.

Massad, R.-S., Tuzet, A., Loubet, B., Perrier, A., and Cellier, P.: Model of stomatal ammonia compensation point (STAMP) in relation to the plant nitrogen and carbon metabolisms and environmental conditions, Ecol. Model., 221, 479–494, 2010.

Massad, R. S., Loubet, B., Tuzet, A., and Cellier, P.: Relationship between ammonia stomatal compensation point and nitrogen metabolism in arable crops: Current status of knowledge and potential modelling approaches, Environ. Pollut., 154, 390–403, 2008.

Massman, W. J.: A review of the molecular diffusivities of H2O, CO2, CH4, CO, O3, SO2, NH3, N2O, NO, and NO2 in air, O2 and N2 near STP, Atmos. Environ., 32, 1111–1127, 1998.

Mattsson, M. and Schjoerring, J. K.: Ammonia emission from young barley plants: Influence of N source, light/dark cycles and inhibition of glutamine synthetase, J. Exp. Bot., 47, 477–484, 1996.

Mattsson, M., Hausler, R. E., Leegood, R. C., Lea, P. J., and Schjoerring, J. K.: Leaf-atmosphere NH3 exchange in barley mutants with reduced activities of glutamine synthetase, Plant Physiol., 114, 1307–1312, 1997.

Mattsson, M., Husted, S., and Schjoerring, J. K.: Influence of nitrogen nutrition and metabolism on ammonia volatilization in plants, Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys., 51, 35–40, 1998.

Mattsson, M. and Schjoerring, J. K.: Dynamic and steady-state responses of inorganic nitrogen pools and NH3 exchange in leaves of Lolium perenne and Bromus erectus to changes in root nitrogen supply, Plant Physiol., 128, 742–750, 2002.

Mattsson, M. and Schjoerring, J. K.: Senescence-induced changes in apoplastic and bulk tissue ammonia concentrations of ryegrass leaves, New Phytol., 160, 489–499, 2003.

Mattsson, M., Herrmann, B., David, M., Loubet, B., Riedo, M., Theobald, M. R., Sutton, M. A., Bruhn, D., Neftel, A., and Schjoerring, J. K.: Temporal variability in bioassays of the stomatal ammonia compensation point in relation to plant and soil nitrogen parameters in intensively managed grassland, Biogeosciences, 6, 171–179, doi:10.5194/bg-6-171-2009, 2009a.

Mattsson, M., Herrmann, B., Jones, S., Neftel, A., Sutton, M. A., and Schjoerring, J. K.: Contribution of different grass species to plant-atmosphere ammonia exchange in intensively managed grassland, Biogeosciences, 6, 59–66, doi:10.5194/bg-6-59-2009, 2009b.

McCalley, C. and Sparks, J.: Controls over nitric oxide and ammonia emissions from Mojave Desert soils, Oecologia, 156, 871–881, 2008.

Milford, C., Hargreaves, K. J., Sutton, M. A., Loubet, B., and Cellier, P.: Fluxes of NH3 and CO2 over upland moorland in the vicinity of agricultural land, J. Geophys. Res-Atmos., 106, 24169–24181, 2001a.

Milford, C., Theobald, M. R., Nemitz, E., and Sutton, M. A.: Dynamics of ammonia exchange in response to cutting and fertilising in an intensively-managed grassland, Water Air Soil Pollut: Focus, 1, 167–176, 2001b.

Milford, C.: Dynamics of atmospheric ammonia exchange with intensively-managed grassland, PhD Thesis, University of Edinburgh, 230~pp., 2004.

Milford, C., Theobald, M. R., Nemitz, E., Hargreaves, K. J., Horvath, L., Raso, J., Dämmgen, U., Neftel, A., Jones, S. K., Hensen, A., Loubet, B., Cellier, P., and Sutton, M. A.: Ammonia fluxes in relation to cutting and fertilization of an intensively managed grassland derived from an inter-comparison of gradient measurements, Biogeosciences, 6, 819–834, doi:10.5194/bg-6-819-2009, 2009.

Monin, A. S. and Obukhov, A. M.: Basic laws of turbulent mixing in the atmosphere near the ground, Tr. Geofiz. Inst., Akad. Nauk SSSR, 24, 163–187, 1954.

Monteith, J. L.: Principles of Environmental Physics, edited by: Arnold, E., London, 1973.

Monteith, J. L. and Unsworth, M. H.: Principles of Environmental Physics. 2nd Edition, Arnold Press, London, 291~pp., 1990.

Morgan, J. A. and Parton, W. J.: Characteristics of ammonia volatilization from spring wheat, Crop Sci., 29, 726–731, 1989.

Mosier, A. R., Kroeze, C., Nevison, C., Oenema, O., and Seitzinger, S.: Closing the global atmospheric N2O budget: nitrous oxide emissions through the agricultural nitrogen cycle, Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys., 52, 225–248, 1998.

Neirynck, J., Kowalski, A. S., Carrara, A., Genouw, G., Berghmans, P., and Ceulemans, R.: Fluxes of oxidised and reduced nitrogen above a mixed coniferous forest exposed to various nitrogen emission sources, Environ. Pollut., 149, 31–43, 2007.

Neirynck, J. and Ceulemans, R.: Bidirectional ammonia exchange above a mixed coniferous forest, Environ. Pollut., 154, 424–438, 2008.

Nemitz, E., Sutton, M. A., Gut, A., San Jose, R., Husted, S., and Schjoerring, J. K.: Sources and sinks of ammonia within an oilseed rape canopy, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 105, 385–404, 2000a.

Nemitz, E., Sutton, M. A., Schjoerring, J. K., Husted, S., and Wyers, G. P.: Resistance modelling of ammonia exchange over oilseed rape, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 105, 405–425, 2000b.

Nemitz, E., Milford, C., and Sutton, M. A.: A two-layer canopy compensation point model for describing bi-directional biosphere-atmosphere exchange of ammonia, Q. J. Roy Meteor. Soc., 127, 815–833, 2001.

Nemitz, E., Sutton, M. A., Wyers, G. P., and Jongejan, P. A. C.: Gas-particle interactions above a Dutch heathland: I. Surface exchange fluxes of NH3, SO2, HNO3 and HCl, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 989–1005, doi:10.5194/acp-4-989-2004, 2004.

Nielsen, K. H. and Schjoerring, J. K.: Regulation of apoplastic NH$_4^+$ concentration in leaves of oilseed rape, Plant Physiol., 118, 1361–1368, 1998.

Personne, E., Loubet, B., Herrmann, B., Mattsson, M., Schjoerring, J. K., Nemitz, E., Sutton, M. A., and Cellier, P.: SURFATM-NH3: a model combining the surface energy balance and bi-directional exchanges of ammonia applied at the field scale, Biogeosciences, 6, 1371–1388, doi:10.5194/bg-6-1371-2009, 2009.

Pitcairn, C. E. R., Leith, I. D., L.J., S., van Dijk, N., Tang, Y. S., Wolseley, P. A., James, P. W., and Sutton, M. A.: Bioindicator methods for assessing effects of atmospheric nitrogen on statutory nature conservation sites. Appendix I. Field inter-comparison of different bio-indicator methods, JNCC Report 386, Peterborough, UK, 141–181, 2004.

Plantaz, M. A. H. G., Slanina, J., and Wyers, G. P.: Surface/atmosphere exchange of ammonia over grazed pasture. Energieonderzoek Centrum Nederland, Petten, The Netherlands, 1996.

Provolo, G. and Martínez-Suller, L.: In situ determination of slurry nutrient content by electrical conductivity, Bioresource Technol., 98, 3235–3242, 2007.

Ramanathan, V., Ramana, M. V., Roberts, G., Kim, D., Corrigan, C., Chung, C., and Winker, D.: Warming trends in Asia amplified by brown cloud solar absorption, Nature, 448, 575–578, 2007.

Rattray, G. and Sievering, H.: Dry deposition of ammonia, nitric acid, ammonium, and nitrate to alpine tundra at Niwot Ridge, Colorado, Atmos. Environ., 35, 1105–1109, 2001.

Raupach, M. R.: Applying Lagrangian fluid mechanics to infer scalar source distributions from concentration profiles in plant canopies, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 47, 85–108, 1989.

Riedo, M., Milford, C., Schmid, M., and Sutton, M. A.: Coupling soil-plant-atmosphere exchange of ammonia with ecosystem functioning in grasslands, Ecol. Model., 158, 83–110, 2002.

Rudich, Y., Benjamin, I., Naaman, R., Thomas, E., Trakhtenberg, S., and Ussyshkin, R.: Wetting of hydrophobic organic surfaces and its implications to organic aerosols in the atmosphere, J. Phys. Chem. A, 104, 5238–5245, 2000.

100

Sarwar, G., Corsi, R. L., Kinney, K. A., Banks, J. A., Torres, V. M., and Schmidt, C.: Measurements of ammonia emissions from oak and pine forests and development of a non-industrial ammonia emissions inventory in Texas, Atmos. Environ., 39, 7137–7153, 2005.

101

Schjoerring, J. K., Kyllingsbaek, A., Mortensen, J. V., and Byskov-Nielsen, S.: Field investigations of ammonia exchange between barley plants and the atmosphere. I. Concentration profiles and flux densities of ammonia, Plant Cell Environ., 16, 161–167, 1993.

102

Schjoerring, J. K., Husted, S., and Mattsson, M.: Physiological parameters controlling plant-atmosphere ammonia exchange, Atmos. Environ., 32, 491–498, 1998a.

103

Schjoerring, J. K., Husted, S., and Poulsen, M. M.: Soil-plant-atmosphere ammonia exchange associated with Calluna vulgaris and Deschampsia flexuosa, Atmos. Environ., 32, 507–512, 1998b.

104

Schjoerring, J. K., Husted, S., Mack, G., and Mattsson, M.: The regulation of ammonium translocation in plants, J. Exp. Botany, 53, 883–890, 2002.

105

Schuepp, P. H.: Turbulent transfer at the ground: On verification of a simple predictive model, Bound-Lay. Meteorol., 12, 171–186, 1977.

106

Shuttleworth, W. J. and Wallace, J. S.: Evaporation from sparse crops – an energy combination theory, Q. J. Roy Meteor. Soc., 111, 839–855, 1985.

107

Simpson, D., Fagerli, H., Jonson, J. E., Tsyro, S., Wind, P., and Tuovinen, J. P.: Transboundary acidification and eutrophication and ground level ozone in Europe: Unified EMEP Model Description. EMEP Status Report 1/2003 Part I, The Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Oslo, Norway, 2003.

108

Simpson, D., Butterbach-Bahl, K., Fagerli, H., Kesik, M., Skiba, U., and Tang, S.: Deposition and emissions of reactive nitrogen over European forests: A modelling study, Atmos. Environ.,~40,~5712–5726, 2006.

109

Sommer, S. G. and Jensen, E. S.: Foliar absorption of atmospheric ammonia by ryegrass in the field, J. Environ. Qual., 20, 153–156, 1991.

110

Sorteberg, A. and Hov, Ø.: Two parametrizations of the dry deposition exchange for SO2 and NH3 in a numerical model, Atmos. Environ., 30, 1823–1840, 1996.

111

Spindler, G., Teichmann, U., and Sutton, M. A.: Ammonia dry deposition over grassland - micrometeorological flux-gradient measurements and bidirectional flux calculations using an inferential model, Q. J. Roy Meteor. Soc., 127, 795–814, 2001.

112

Sutton, M. A., Moncrieff, J. B., and Fowler, D.: Deposition of atmospheric ammonia to moorlands, Environ.Pollut., 75, 15–24, 1992.

113

Sutton, M. A. and Fowler, D.: A model for inferring bi-directional fluxes of ammonia over plant canopies, in: WMO Conference on the Measurement and Modeling of Atmospheric Composition Changes including Pollution Transport, WMO/GAW, WMO, Geneva, CH, Sofia, Bulgaria, October, 179–182, 1993.

114

Sutton, M. A., Fowler, D., Moncrieff, J. B., and Storeton-West, R. L.: The exchange of atmospheric ammonia with vegetated surfaces I. Unfertilized vegetation, Q. J. Roy Meteor. Soc., 119, 1023–1045, 1993a.

115

Sutton, M. A., Fowler, D., Moncrieff, J. B., and Storeton-West, R. L.: The exchange of atmospheric ammonia with vegetated surfaces II. Fertilized vegetation, Q. J. Roy Meteor. Soc., 119, 1047–1070, 1993b.

116

Sutton, M. A., Pitcairn, C. E. R., and Fowler, D.: The exchange of ammonia between the atmosphere and plant communities, Adv. Ecol. Res., 24, 301–393, 1993c.

117

Sutton, M. A., Asman, W. A. H., and Schjoerring, J. K.: Dry deposition of reduced nitrogen, Tellus B, 46B, 255–273, 1994.

118

Sutton, M. A., Burkhardt, J. K., Guerin, D., and Fowler, D.: Measurement and modelling of ammonia exchange over arable croplands, in: Acid Rain Research: Do We Have Enough Answers?, edited by: Heij, G. J. and Erisman, J. W., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 64, 71–80, 1995a.

119

Sutton, M. A., Schjoerring, J. K., and Wyers, G. P.: Plant-atmosphere exchange of ammonia, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. S-A, 351, 261–278, 1995b.

120

Sutton, M. A., Hill, P. W., Fowler, D., and Raven, J. A.: Impacts of nitrogen deposition on plant physiological parameters controlling the ammonia compensation point, Annual report of ITE to the Department of the Environment, 1996a.

121

Sutton, M. A., Nemitz, E., Fowler, D., Wyers, G. P., Otjes, R. P., San José, R., Moreno, J., Schjørring, J. K., Husted, S., Meixner, F. X., Ammann, C., Neftel, A., and Gut, A.: Exchange of atmospheric ammonia with European ecosystems (EXAMINE), Final Report to the European Commission, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Edinburgh, 266, 1996b.

122

Sutton, M. A., Milford, C., Dragosits, U., Singles, R., Fowler, D., Ross, C., Hill, R., Jarvis, S. C., Pain, B. F., Harrison, D., Moss, D., Webb, J., Espenhahn, S., Halliwell, C., Lee, D. S., Wyers, G. P., Hill, J., and ApSimon, H. M.: Gradients of atmospheric ammonia concentrations and deposition downwind of ammonia emissions: first results of the ADEPT Burrington Moor Experiment, in: Gaseous Exchange with Grassland Systems, edited by: Jarvis, S. C. and Pain, B. P., CAB International Wallingford, 131–139, 1997.

123

Sutton, M. A., Burkhardt, J. K., Guerin, D., Nemitz, E., and Fowler, D.: Development of resistance models to describe measurements of bi-directional ammonia surface-atmosphere exchange, Atmos. Environ., 32, 473–480, 1998a.

124

Sutton, M. A., Milford, C., Dragosits, U., Place, C. J., Singles, R. J., Smith, R. I., Pitcairn, C. E. R., Fowler, D., Hill, J., ApSimon, H. M., Ross, C., Hill, R., Jarvis, S. C., Pain, B. F., Phillips, V. C., Harrison, R., Moss, D., Webb, J., Espenhahn, S. E., Lee, D. S., Hornung, M., Ullyett, J., Bull, K. R., Emmett, B. A., Lowe, J., and Wyers, G. P.: Dispersion, deposition and impacts of atmospheric ammonia: quantifying local budgets and spatial variability, Environ. Pollut., 102, 349–361, 1998b.

125

Sutton, M. A., Nemitz, E., Fowler, D., Wyers, G. P., Otjes, R. P., Schjoerring, J. K., Husted, S., Nielsen, K. H., San José, R., Moreno, J., Gallagher, M. W., and Gut, A.: Fluxes of ammonia over oilseed rape: Overview of the EXAMINE experiment, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 105, 327–349, 2000.

126

Sutton, M. A., Milford, C., Nemitz, E., Theobald, M. R., Hargreaves, K. J., Fowler, D., Schjoerring, J. K., Mattsson, M. E., Husted, S., Erisman, J. W., Hensen, A., Mosquera, J., Otjes, R., Jonejon, P., Cellier, P., Loubet, B., David, M., Neftel, A., Blatter, A., Hermann, B., Jones, S. K., Horvath, L., Weidinger, T., Raso, J., Meszaros, R., Fuhrer, E., Mantzanas, C., Koukoura, Z., Papanastasis, V., Gallagher, Z. M., Dorsey, J. R., Flynn, M., and Riedo, M.: Biosphere-atmosphere interactions of ammonia with European Grasslands. Final Synthesis Report 1, European Comission, Center for Ecology and Hydrology, Edinburgh, 69~pp., 2002.

127

Sutton, M. A., Asman, W. A. H., Ellermann, T., Van Jaarsveld, J. A., Acker, K., Aneja, V., Duyzer, J., Horvath, L., Paramonov, S., Mitosinkova, M., Tang, Y. S., Achermann, B., Gauger, T., Bartniki, J., Neftel, A., and Erisman, J. W.: Establishing the link between ammonia emission control and measurements of reduced nitrogen concentrations and deposition, Environ. Monit. Assess., 82, 149–185, 2003.

128

Sutton, M. A., Erisman, J. W., Dentener, F., and Möller, D.: Ammonia in the environment: From ancient times to the present, Environ.Pollut., 156, 583–604, 2008.

129

Sutton, M. A., Nemitz, E., Milford, C., Campbell, C., Erisman, J. W., Hensen, A., Cellier, P., David, M., Loubet, B., Personne, E., Schjoerring, J. K., Mattsson, M., Dorsey, J. R., Gallagher, M. W., Horvath, L., Weidinger, T., Meszaros, R., Dämmgen, U., Neftel, A., Herrmann, B., Lehman, B. E., Flechard, C., and Burkhardt, J.: Dynamics of ammonia exchange with cut grassland: synthesis of results and conclusions of the GRAMINAE Integrated Experiment, Biogeosciences, 6, 2907–2934, doi:10.5194/bg-6-2907-2009, 2009a.

130

Sutton, M. A., Nemitz, E., Theobald, M. R., Milford, C., Dorsey, J. R., Gallagher, M. W., Hensen, A., Jongejan, P. A. C., Erisman, J. W., Mattsson, M., Schjoerring, J. K., Cellier, P., Loubet, B., Roche, R., Neftel, A., Hermann, B., Jones, S. K., Lehman, B. E., Horvath, L., Weidinger, T., Rajkai, K., Burkhardt, J., Löpmeier, F. J., and Daemmgen, U.: Dynamics of ammonia exchange with cut grassland: strategy and implementation of the GRAMINAE Integrated Experiment, Biogeosciences, 6, 309–331, doi:10.5194/bg-6-309-2009, 2009b.

131

Sutton, M. A., Reis, S., and Baker, S. (Eds.): Atmospheric ammonia: detecting emission changes and environmental impacts. Results of an expert workshop under the convention on long-range transboundary air pollution, Springer, 2009c.

132

Trebs, I., Meixner, F. X., Slanina, J., Otjes, R., Jongejan, P., and Andreae, M. O.: Real-time measurements of ammonia, acidic trace gases and water-soluble inorganic aerosol species at a rural site in the Amazon Basin, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 967–987, doi:10.5194/acp-4-967-2004, 2004.

133

van Hove, L. W. A., Koops, A. J., Adema, E. H., Vredenberg, W. J., and Pieters, G. A.: Analysis of the uptake of atmospheric ammonia by leaves of Phaseolus vulgaris L., Atmos. Environ., 21, 1759–1763, 1987.

134

van Hove, L. W. A., Adema, E. H., Vredenberg, W. J., and Pieters, G. A.: A study of the adsorption of NH3 and SO2 on leaf surfaces, Atmos. Environ., 23, 1479–1486, 1989.

135

van Hove, L. W. A. and Adema, E. H.: The effective thickness of water films on leaves, Atmos. Environ., 30, 2933–2936, 1996.

136

van Hove, L. W. A., Heeres, P., and Bossen, M. E.: The annual variation in stomatal ammonia compensation point of rye grass (Lolium perenne L.) leaves in an intensively managed grassland, Atmos. Environ., 36, 2965–2977, 2002.

137

van Pul, A., Hertel, O., Geels, C., Dore, A., Vieno, M., van Jaarsveld, H. A., Bergstrom, R., Schaap, M., and Fagerli, H.: Modelling of the atmospheric transport and deposition of ammonia at a national and regional scale, in: Atmospheric Ammonia – Detecting emission changes and environmental impacts. Results of an expert workshop under the convention of long-range transboundary air pollution, edited by: Sutton, M. A., Reis, S., Baker, S. M. H., Springer, 301–358, 2009.

138

Vautard, R., Beekmann, M., Roux, J., and Gombert D. : Validation of a hybrid forecasting system for the ozone concentrations over the Paris area, Atmos. Environ., 35, 2449–2461, 2001.

139

Vieno, M.: The use of an atmospheric chemistry – transport model (FRAME) over the UK and development of its numerical and physical schemes, PhD Thesis, University of Edinburgh, 2006.

140

Walker, J. T., Robarge, W. P., Wu, Y., and Meyers, T. P.: Measurement of bi-directional ammonia fluxes over soybean using the modified Bowen-ratio technique, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 138, 54–68, 2006.

141

Walker, J., Spence, P., Kimbrough, S., and Robarge, W. P.: Inferential model estimates of ammonia dry deposition in the vicinity of a swine production facility, Atmos. Environ., 42, 3407–3418, 2008.

142

Wang, Y. P. and Leuning, R.: A two-leaf model for canopy conductance, photosynthesis and partitioning of available energy I: Model description and comparison with a multi-layered model, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 91, 89–111, 1998.

143

Wesely, M. L.: Parameterization of surface resistances to gaseous dry deposition in regional scale numerical models, Atmos. Environ., 23, 1293–1304, 1989.

144

Wichink-Kruit, R. J., Jacobs, A. F. G., and Holtslag, A. A. M.: Measurements and estimates of leaf wetness over agricultural grassland for dry deposition modeling of trace gases, Atmos. Environ., 42, 5304–5316, 2008.

145

Wichink-Kruit, R. J., van Pul, W. A. J., Otjes, R. P., Hofschreuder, P., Jacobs, A. F. G., and Holtslag, A. A. M.: Ammonia fluxes and derived canopy compensation points over non-fertilized agricultural grassland in The Netherlands using the new gradient ammonia-high accuracy-monitor (GRAHAM), Atmos. Environ., 41, 1275–1287, 2007.

146

Wichink-Kruit, R. J., van Pul, W. A. J., Sauter, F. J., van den Broek, M., Nemitz, E., Sutton, M. A., Krol, M., and Holtslag, A. A. M.: Modeling the surface-atmosphere exchange of ammonia, Atmos. Environ., 44, 945–957, 2010.

147

Wu, Y. H., Walker, J., Schwede, D., Peters-Lidard, C., Dennis, R., and Robarge, W.: A new model of bi-directional ammonia exchange between the atmosphere and biosphere: Ammonia stomatal compensation point, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 149, 263–280, 2009.

148

Wyers, G. P. and Erisman, J. W.: Ammonia exchange over coniferous forest, Atmos. Environ., 32, 441–451, 1998.

149

Yamulki, S., Harrison, R. M., and Goulding, K. W. T.: Ammonia surface-exchange above an agricultural field in southeast England, Atmos. Environ., 30, 109–118, 1996.

150

Zhang, L., Brook, J. R., and Vet, R.: A revised parameterization for gaseous dry deposition in air-quality models, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 2067–2082, doi:10.5194/acp-3-2067-2003, 2003.

151

Zhang, L., Wright, P. L., and Asman, W. A. H.: Bi-directional air-surface exchange of atmospheric ammonia – A review of measurements and a development of a big-leaf model for applications in regional-scale air-quality models, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D20310, doi:10.1029/2009JD013589, 2010.